1960 U-2 Incident - Wikipedia

Cold War aircraft shootdown

1960 U-2 shootdown incident
Part of the Cold War
The wreckage of the American Lockheed U-2 Dragon Lady on display at the Central Armed Forces Museum in Moscow
Type	Aircraft shootdown
Location	Near Aramil, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Soviet Union[1]56°43′35″N 60°59′10″E / 56.72639°N 60.98611°E / 56.72639; 60.98611
Objective	Intercept American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft
Date	1 May 1960
Executed by	Soviet Air Defense Forces
Outcome	American aircraft shot down, pilot Francis Gary Powers captured
Casualties	1; Soviet pilot Sergei Safronov (friendly fire)

On 1 May 1960, a United States U-2 spy plane, having taken off from Peshawar in Pakistan, was shot down by the Soviet Air Defence Forces in Sverdlovsk, Russia. It was conducting photographic aerial reconnaissance inside Soviet territory while being flown by American pilot Francis Gary Powers, as it was hit by a surface-to-air missile. Powers parachuted to the ground and was captured.

Initially, American authorities claimed the incident involved the loss of a civilian weather research aircraft operated by NASA, but were forced to admit the mission's true purpose a few days later after the Soviet government produced the captured pilot and parts of the U-2's surveillance equipment, including photographs of Soviet military bases.

The incident occurred during the tenures of American president Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, around two weeks before the scheduled opening of an east–west summit in Paris, France. Khrushchev and Eisenhower had met face-to-face at Camp David in Maryland in September 1959, and the seeming thaw in US-Soviet relations had raised hopes globally for a peaceful resolution to the Cold War. The U-2 incident shattered the amiable "Spirit of Camp David" that had prevailed for eight months, prompting the cancellation of the summit in Paris and embarrassing the US on the international stage. The Pakistani government issued a formal apology to the Soviet Union for its role in the mission.

After his capture, Powers was convicted of espionage and sentenced to three years of imprisonment plus seven years of hard labour; he was released two years later, in February 1962, in a prisoner exchange for Soviet intelligence officer Rudolf Abel.

Background

[edit]

In July 1958, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower requested permission from the Pakistani prime minister Feroze Khan Noon for the US to establish a secret intelligence facility in Pakistan and for the U-2 spy plane to fly from Pakistan. The U-2 flew at altitudes that could not be reached by Soviet fighter jets of the era; it was believed to be beyond the reach of Soviet missiles as well. A facility established in Badaber (Peshawar Air Station), 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Peshawar, was a cover for a major communications intercept operation run by the United States National Security Agency (NSA). Badaber was an excellent location because of its proximity to Soviet central Asia. This enabled the monitoring of missile test sites, key infrastructure and communications. The U-2 "spy-in-the-sky" was allowed to use the Pakistan Air Force section of Peshawar Airport to gain vital photo intelligence in an era before satellite observation.[2]

Eisenhower did not want to fly American U-2 pilots over the Soviet Union. He believed that if one of these pilots were to be shot down or captured, the flight could be seen as an act of aggression that might spark open conflict. Someone suggested using British pilots from the Royal Air Force fly these missions instead of US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) pilots, which would allow Eisenhower to deny US involvement. The British government consented to the proposal under the codename Project Oldster.

After the success of the first two British pilots and because of desire to determine the number of Soviet intercontinental ballistic missiles more accurately, Eisenhower allowed the flying of two more missions before the Four Power Paris Summit, scheduled for 16 May. The final two missions before the summit were to be flown by American pilots.[3]

On 9 April 1960, a U-2C spy plane of the special CIA unit "10-10", piloted by Bob Ericson, crossed the southern national boundary of the Soviet Union in the area of Pamir Mountains and flew over four Soviet top-secret military objects: the Semipalatinsk Test Site, the Dolon Air Base where Tu-95 strategic bombers were stationed, the surface-to-air missile (SAM) test site of the Soviet Air Defence Forces near Saryshagan, and the Tyuratam missile range (Baikonur Cosmodrome).[4]

The aircraft was detected by the Soviet Air Defense Forces when it had flown more than 250 kilometres (155 mi) over the Soviet national boundary; it avoided attempts at interception by a MiG-19 and a Su-9. The U-2 left Soviet air space and landed at an Iranian airstrip at Zahedan, completing an extraordinarily dangerous but productive intelligence operation. The next flight of the U-2 spy plane from Peshawar airport was planned for late April.[4]

Event

[edit]

Dubbed "Grand Slam", the flight was to leave the base in Peshawar and overfly the Soviet Union. The photographic targets included the Soviet's ICBM launch pads: two at Baikonur Cosmodrome and four at Plesetsk Cosmodrome.[5] Another target was Chelyabinsk-65 (today, Mayak), an important industrial center of plutonium processing.[6] The flight would end with a landing at Bodø in Norway.

On 28 April 1960, a US Lockheed U-2C spy plane, Article 358, was ferried from Incirlik Air Base in Turkey to the US base at Peshawar airport by pilot Glen Dunaway. Fuel for the aircraft had been ferried to Peshawar the previous day in a US Air Force C-124 transport. An Air Force C-130 followed, carrying the ground crew, mission pilot Captain Francis Powers, and backup pilot Bob Ericson. On the morning of 29 April, the crew in Badaber was informed that the mission had been delayed by one day. As a result, Ericson flew Article 358 back to Incirlik and John Shinn ferried another U-2C, Article 360 56–6693,[7] from Incirlik to Peshawar. On 30 April, the mission was delayed one day further because of bad weather over the Soviet Union.[4]

The weather improved and on 1 May, 15 days before the scheduled opening of the east–west summit conference in Paris, Powers took off for Grand Slam in Article 360.[8]

The U-2 flight was expected, and all units of the Soviet Air Defence Forces in the Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Siberia, Ural, and later in the USSR European Region and Extreme North, were placed on red alert. Soon after the aircraft was detected, Lieutenant General of the Air Force Yevgeniy Savitskiy ordered the air-unit commanders "to attack the violator by all alert flights located in the area of foreign plane's course, and to ram if necessary".[9]

Because of the U-2's extreme altitude, Soviet attempts to intercept the aircraft using fighter aircraft failed. The U-2's course was out of range of several of the nearest SAM sites, and one SAM site failed to engage the aircraft since it was not on duty that day.

Powers' account of the flight shows that one of the last targets he overflew was the Chelyabinsk-65 plutonium production facility.[10]

His U-2 was shot down near Kosulino, Ural Region, by the first of three S-75 Dvina surface-to-air missiles[11] fired by a battery commanded by Mikhail Voronov.[4] The S-75 site had been supposedly identified previously by the CIA, using photos taken during Vice President Richard Nixon's visit to Sverdlovsk the previous summer.[12][13]

Powers bailed out but neglected to disconnect his oxygen hose and struggled with it until it broke, enabling him to separate from the aircraft. After parachuting safely onto Soviet soil, Powers was quickly captured.[9] Powers carried a modified silver dollar which contained a lethal, shellfish-derived saxitoxin-tipped needle, but he did not use it.[14]

The SAM command center was unaware for more than 30 minutes that the aircraft was destroyed.[9] One of the Soviet MiG-19 fighters pursuing Powers was also destroyed in the missile salvo, and the pilot, Sergei Safronov, was killed.[4][15] The MiGs' IFF transponders were not yet switched to the new May codes because of the 1 May holiday.[16]

American cover-up and exposure

[edit]

US officials initially believed that Powers had died and his plane was destroyed. They decided to try a cover-up,[17] which failed, enabling Nikita Khrushchev to embarrass President Eisenhower and his administration.

On 5 May, four days after Powers' disappearance, NASA issued a detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey.[18] The press release speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, even falsely claiming that "the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties". To bolster this, a U-2 was quickly painted in NASA colors and shown to the media.

That same day, the Senate made its first comments on the U-2 incident and began a domestic political controversy for Eisenhower. Mike Mansfield, the Senate Majority Whip, stated, "First reports indicate that the President had no knowledge of the plane incident. If that is the case, we have got to ask whether or not this administration has any real control over the federal bureaucracy."[19] Mansfield, more than any other person, highlighted the dilemma Eisenhower faced—Eisenhower could admit responsibility for the U-2 flight, and likely ruin any chances for détente at the Paris Summit, or he could continue to deny knowledge and indicate that he did not control his own administration.[20]

When Khrushchev heard about America's NASA cover story, he developed a political trap for Eisenhower. He announced that a spy plane had been shot down in Soviet territory, but he did not reveal that the pilot of this aircraft had been found and that he was alive. This led US officials to believe they could continue with their cover story that the crashed U-2 was a weather research aircraft. Building on the lie that the pilot had experienced oxygen difficulties while flying over Turkey, they declared that the pilot may have passed out and the aircraft continued on autopilot into Soviet airspace. To bolster the story, they grounded all U-2 aircraft for inspection of oxygen systems.[21]

On 7 May, Khrushchev sprang his trap and announced:[10]

I must tell you a secret. When I made my first report I deliberately did not say that the pilot was alive and well ... and now just look how many silly things the Americans have said.

To buttress his claims, Khrushchev released photos of U-2 systems.[22]

Khrushchev attempted to allow Eisenhower to save face, and possibly to salvage the peace summit to some degree, by laying the blame not on Eisenhower himself, but on Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles and the CIA. Khrushchev said that anyone wishing to understand the U-2's mission should "seek a reply from Allen Dulles, at whose instructions the American aircraft flew over the Soviet Union".[23] On 9 May, the Soviet premier told US ambassador Thompson that he "could not help but suspect that someone had launched this operation with the deliberate intent of spoiling the summit meeting". Thompson also wrote in his diplomatic cable that Khrushchev suspected it was Allen Dulles, and that Khrushchev had heard about Senator Mansfield's remarks that Eisenhower did not control his own administration.[24]

Upon receiving this cable, Eisenhower, who frequently was very animated, was quiet and depressed. The only words he said to his secretary were, "I would like to resign."[25] Meanwhile, the domestic pressure continued to mount. Eisenhower then accepted Dulles's argument that the congressional leadership needed to be briefed on the U-2 missions from the last four years. Dulles told the legislature that all U-2 flights were used for aerial espionage and had been flown pursuant to "presidential directives". Still, Dulles played down Eisenhower's direct role in approving every previous U-2 flight.[26]

The next day, on 10 May, House Appropriations Chair Clarence Cannon, not President Eisenhower, revealed the true nature of the U-2 mission. He told an open session of the House of Representatives that the U-2 was a CIA aircraft engaged in aerial espionage over the Soviet Union. Cannon said,

Mr. Chairman, on May 1 the Soviet Government captured, 1300 miles inside the boundaries of the Russian Empire, an American plane, operated by an American pilot, under the direction and control of the US Central Intelligence Agency, and is now holding both the plane and the pilot. The plane was on an espionage mission ... the activity ... [was] under the aegis of the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the United States, for whom all members of the subcommittee have the highest regard and in whose military capacity they have the utmost confidence.[27]

At the end of Cannon's speech, Democrats and Republicans uncharacteristically rose to their feet to applaud.[28]

Still, Eisenhower faced criticism in the press for not controlling his own administration, as Cannon's speech only said the mission was "under the aegis of" the president, not "directed by". Press reports were creating a belief in the public that Eisenhower had lost control, which Eisenhower would not let stand. Knowing that he was jeopardizing the Paris Peace Summit, Eisenhower decided to reveal the aerial espionage program and his direct role in it, an unprecedented move for a US president. His speech on 11 May revolved around four main points: the need for intelligence gathering activities; the nature of intelligence gathering activities; how intelligence activities should be viewed (as distasteful, but vital); and finally that Americans should not be distracted from the real problems of the day. Eisenhower closed passionately by reacting to the Soviet claim that the US acted provocatively and said: "They had better look at their own [espionage] record." As he finished, he told reporters he was still going to the Paris Peace Summit.[29]

Defense analyst Richard Best, for the Congressional Research Service, writes: "Many observers believed that when President Eisenhower in 1960 accepted responsibility for U-2 overflights of the Soviet Union, he made reaching agreements with Moscow much more difficult; had he blamed the flights on the Pentagon or the CIA, Khrushchev arguably might not have felt forced to react so strongly even though he might not believe the denials. Such reasoning, while constrained, is hardly unusual. It is easier for a President to deal with foreign leaders who are known to have committed violent acts, but have never admitted having done so, than to meet formally with those who have acknowledged 'unacceptable' behavior."[30]

A large part of the wreck as well as many items from Powers' survival pack are on display at the Central Armed Forces Museum in Moscow. A small piece of the U-2 was returned to the United States and is on display at the National Cryptologic Museum.[31]

Aftermath

[edit]

Contemporary reactions and effect on the Four Powers Summit

[edit]

The Summit was attended by Eisenhower, Khrushchev, French President Charles de Gaulle, and British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.[32] It was the first conference to be attended by both Soviet and western leaders in five years.[33] However, prospects for constructive dialogue were dashed by the explosive controversy surrounding the U-2 flight over Soviet territory.

Although the Four Powers Summit was the first meeting between western and Soviet leaders in five years when it was held, the mood was optimistic that there could be an easing of tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States. In an effort to present a less hostile, more cordial Soviet Union, Khrushchev publicly advocated a policy of "peaceful coexistence with the United States".[33] The May Day celebrations on 1 May of that year were marked by this newfound cooperative spirit. Absent were the militarized symbols of previous parades, such as artillery and armor. Instead, there were children, white doves, and athletes.[34] But the reaction of the Soviet government to the spy plane incident and the response from the United States doomed any potential meaningful peace agreement.[32]

In the days directly leading up to the conference, tensions increased dramatically between the United States and the Soviet Union over the U-2 incident. At this point in the negotiations, the hardliners of the Soviet government were applying heavy pressure to Khrushchev. In the weeks leading up to the summit there had been a revitalization of anti-American sentiment within the Kremlin, with the Soviets blocking a planned trip to Washington DC of a Soviet air marshal, inviting Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong to Moscow, and launching an anti-American press campaign designed to critique "American aggression".[35] At this time east and west were divided about how to move forward in Berlin, and the American press characterized Khrushchev's decision to emphasize the U-2 incident at the summit as an attempt to gain leverage on this issue.[36]

The summit itself did not last long, with talks only beginning on 15 May and ending on 16 May. Both Eisenhower and Khrushchev gave statements on the 16th. Khrushchev blasted the United States on the U-2 incident. He pointed out that the policy of secret spying was one of mistrust and that the incident had doomed the summit before it even began. He expected the United States and Eisenhower to condemn the spying and pledge to end further reconnaissance missions.[37]

At the summit, after Khrushchev had blown Eisenhower's cover, Eisenhower did not deny that the aircraft had been spying on Soviet military installations but contended that the action was not aggressive but defensive. He argued that the current state of international relations was not one in which peaceful coexistence was an already established fact. The policy of the United States towards the Soviet Union at that time was defensive and cautionary. Eisenhower also made the point that dialogue at the Four Powers Summit was the type of international negotiation that could lead to a relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union where there would be no need to spy on each other. Eisenhower also laid out a plan for an international agreement that authorized the UN to "inspect" any nations willing to submit to its authority for signs of increased militarization and aggressive action. He stated that the United States would be more than willing to submit to such an inspection by the UN and that he hoped to circumvent the spying controversy with this alternative international surveillance agreement.[37]

The meeting during which both parties made their statements lasted just over three hours. During this time Khrushchev rescinded an invitation he had earlier given to Eisenhower to visit the Soviet Union.[citation needed]

According to American broadcast journalist Walter Cronkite, Khrushchev would go on to say that this incident was the beginning of his decline in power as party chairman, perhaps because he seemed unable to negotiate the international arena and the communist hardliners at home.[33] The collapse of the summit also saw an increased tension between the Soviets and the Americans in the years to come. After this debacle, the arms race accelerated and any considerations for negotiations were dashed for the immediate future.[38][39]

Consequences of the incident

[edit]

As a result of the spy plane incident and the attempted cover-up, the Four Power Paris Summit was not completed. At the beginning of the talks on 16 May, there was still hope that the two sides could come together even after the events that took place earlier in May, but Eisenhower refused to apologize and Khrushchev left the summit one day after it had begun. Even though Eisenhower refused to apologize, he did admit that the flights were "suspended and would not resume".[40] Some public opinion was that Khrushchev had overreacted to the event in an attempt to strengthen his own position, and for that, he was the one to blame for the collapse of the Four Power Paris Summit.[22][39]

Before the U-2 incident Khrushchev and Eisenhower had been getting along well and the summit was going to be an opportunity for the two sides to come together. Also, Eisenhower had been looking forward to a visit to the Soviet Union and was very upset when his invitation was retracted. The two sides were going to discuss topics such as nuclear arms reduction and also how to deal with increasing tensions surrounding Berlin. According to Eisenhower, had it not been for the U-2 incident, the summit and his visit to the Soviet Union could have greatly helped Soviet and American relations.[41]

The Soviet Union convened a meeting of the United Nations Security Council on 23 May to tell their side of the story.[42] The meetings continued for four days with other allegations of spying being exchanged, as well as recriminations over the Paris Summit, and a US offer of an "open skies" proposal to allow reciprocal flights over one another's territory,[43][44][45] at the end of which the Soviet Union overwhelmingly lost a vote[46] on a concise resolution which would have condemned the incursions and requested the US to prevent their recurrence.[47][18]

The incident also reverberated around the world. For example, in Japan, the incident contributed to the growth of the ongoing Anpo protests against the US-Japan Security Treaty (known as "Anpo" in Japanese) which allowed the United States to maintain military bases on Japanese soil.[39] The Japanese government was forced to admit that U-2 planes were also based at US bases in Japan, which meant that Japan might be subject to attack should a war break out between the United States and the Soviet Union. Accordingly, when the U-2 revelations came to light, Japanese protesters felt added urgency in their drive to eliminate the treaty and rid Japan of US military bases.[39]

Fallout in Pakistan and Norway

[edit] Pakistan

The U-2 incident severely compromised Pakistan's security and dented relations with the United States. After the incident, Nikita Khrushchev threatened to drop a nuclear bomb on Peshawar,[48] thus warning Pakistan that it had become a target of Soviet nuclear forces.[49] General Khalid Mahmud Arif of the Pakistan Army stated that "Pakistan felt deceived because the US had kept her in the dark about such clandestine spy operations launched from Pakistan's territory", although Pakistan's president Muhammad Ayub Khan may have known about the operations.[50] Khan visited the USSR in 1965 and apologized for the incident.[51] When Khan invited Soviet foreign minister Andrei Gromyko to visit Pakistan, pointing out he'd never visited the country, the latter sarcastically replied "I always keep ahead of the U-2".[51]

The communications wing at Badaber was formally closed down on 7 January 1970.[52] Further, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee held a lengthy inquiry into the U-2 incident.[53]

Norway

In Norway, authorities gave permission for the United States to have a temporary base in Bodø during 1960; the condition was that U-2 missions were only to fly over international waters; the request from the US was made to chief of intelligence Vilhelm Evang, then passed on to defense minister Nils Handal, then passed on to "regjeringens sikkerhetsutvalg ('the Cabinet's security committee') where prime minister Gerhardsen and foreign minister Lange" were members.[54]

In the Norwegian Armed Forces, the U-2 incident caused "dirty laundry to be aired", but no blame was assigned; as of 2022, the archives from 1960 of Norwegian Intelligence Service have not been declassified.[54]

Pilot's fate

[edit]

Upon his capture, Gary Powers told his Soviet captors what his mission had been and why he had been in Soviet airspace. He did this in accordance with orders that he had received before he went on his mission.[41] Powers pleaded guilty and was convicted of espionage on 19 August and sentenced to three years imprisonment and seven years of hard labor. He served one year and nine months of the sentence before being exchanged for Rudolf Abel on 10 February 1962.[18] The exchange occurred on the Glienicke Bridge connecting Potsdam, East Germany, to West Berlin.[55]

New tactics and technology

[edit]

The incident showed that even high-altitude aircraft were vulnerable to Soviet surface-to-air missiles. As a result, the United States began emphasizing high-speed, low-level flights for its previously high altitude B-47, B-52 and B-58 bombers, and began developing the supersonic F-111, which would include an FB-111A variant for the Strategic Air Command.[56] The Corona spy satellite project was accelerated. The CIA also accelerated the development of the Lockheed A-12 OXCART supersonic spyplane that first flew in 1962 and later began developing the Lockheed D-21 unmanned drone.[citation needed]

As a result of the capture, the Russians reverse-engineered the U-2 and ended up producing the Beriev S-13, but development was cancelled after Powers was released.

Later versions

[edit]

The original consensus about the cause of the U-2 incident was that the spy plane had been shot down by one of a salvo of 14 Soviet S-75 missiles. This story was originated by Oleg Penkovsky, a GRU agent who spied for MI6.[57] In 2010, CIA documents were released indicating that "top US officials never believed Powers's account of his fateful flight because it appeared to be directly contradicted by a report from the National Security Agency" which alleged that the U-2 had descended from 20,000 to 10,000 metres (65,000 to 34,000 ft) before changing course and disappearing from radar. One more recent reading of the NSA's story is that they mistakenly tracked the descent of a MiG-19 piloted by Sr. Lt. Sergei Safronov.[58]

Igor Mentyukov

[edit]

In 1996, Soviet pilot Captain Igor Mentyukov claimed that, at 19,800 metres (65,000 ft) altitude, under orders to ram the intruder, he had caught the U-2 in the slipstream of his unarmed Sukhoi Su-9, causing the U-2 to flip over and break its wings. The salvo of missiles had indeed scored a hit, downing a pursuing MiG-19, not the U-2. Mentyukov said that if a missile had hit the U-2, its pilot would not have lived.[59][60]

Though the normal Su-9 service ceiling was 16,800 metres (55,000 ft), Mentyukov's aircraft had been modified to achieve higher altitudes, having its weapons removed. With no weapons, the only attack option open to him was aerial ramming. Mentyukov asserted that Soviet generals concealed these facts to avoid challenging Nikita Khrushchev's faith in the efficiency of Soviet air defenses.[60]

Selmer Nilsen

[edit]

In 1981, Selmer Nilsen, a Norwegian convicted for spying for the Soviet Union, claimed in his book 'I Was a Russian Spy' that Powers's U-2 had actually been sabotaged. He alleged that a bomb had been placed in the tail of the aircraft by two Soviet spies disguised as mechanics at a Turkish airfield. He claimed to have been told this by Soviet officials shortly after the incident.[61] This may have been a contemporary 1962 theory also. Ian Fleming, writing his 1963 James Bond novel, On Her Majesty's Secret Service, had M mention to Bond during a briefing that "a plastic explosives expert was working for the KGB in Turkey. If it's true that the U-2 that fellow Powers was piloting was brought down by delayed charges and not by rockets, it may be this man is implicated."

Fletcher Prouty

[edit]

Fletcher Prouty was an Air Force officer who coordinated covert actions between the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Central Intelligence Agency. In the 1990s, he gave an interview suggesting the incident was an elaborate disinformation operation with a secondary political goal of sabotaging peace talks. Prouty noted the U-2 did not carry the advanced camera, that the U-2 had previously crashed and had been rebuilt by Lockheed to non-standard specifications, and the hydrogen tank had only been half-filled, meaning it would have run out of fuel over the Soviet Union. The effect of such an operation would be to mislead the Soviet Union about the aircraft's capabilities such as camera resolution.[62]

Film

[edit]

In 2015, the Steven Spielberg feature film Bridge of Spies was released, which dramatized James B. Donovan (Tom Hanks[63])'s negotiations for Powers's release, but took certain liberties with what really happened. For instance, Powers is shown being tortured by the Soviets, when in reality he was treated well by his captors and spent much of his time doing handicrafts.[64]

In January 2016, the BBC magazine produced photographs from the time and an interview with Powers's son.[65]

See also

[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1960 U-2 incident. Russian Wikisource has original text related to this article: Francis Gary Powers

• United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union
• Second-term curse

General:

• Cold War (1953–1962)
• Operation Sandblast

Analogous incidents:

• 1960 RB-47 shootdown incident
• Cuban Missile Crisis
• Hainan Island incident
• Iran–US RQ-170 incident
• Korean Air Lines Flight 007
• Korean Air Lines Flight 902
• Rudolf Anderson
• 2023 Chinese balloon incident

References

[edit]

1. ^ Samoylov, Boris (1 February 2012). "Загадка первомая 1960 года – часть I" [Riddle of May Day 1960 – Part I]. Военно-промышленный курьер (Military-Industrial Courier, VPK) (in Russian). Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
2. ^ Amjad Ali, the Pakistani ambassador to the US at the time, narrated in his book Glimpses (Lahore: Jang Publishers, 1992) that the personal assistant of Suhrawardy advised embassy staff of the Prime Minister's agreement to the US facility on Pakistan soil.
3. ^ Brugioni, Dino A., and Doris G. Taylor. Eyes in the Sky: Eisenhower, the CIA, and Cold War Aerial Espionage (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 2010), pp. 343–346.
4. ^ a b c d e Pocock, Chris (2000). The U-2 Spyplane: Toward the Unknown – A New History of the Early Years. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History. ISBN 978-0-7643-1113-0.
5. ^ Harford, James (1997). Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-14853-9.
6. ^ Oleg A. Bukharin. "The Cold War Atomic Intelligence Game, 1945–70". Studies in Intelligence. 48. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 24 December 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011.
7. ^ Richelson, Jeffrey T. (1 July 2008). "When Secrets Crash". Air Force Magazine. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020. On Sept. 24, 1959, Thomas L. Crull was flying a newly arrived U-2C, Article 360, on a local flight, heading back to Atsugi after setting an altitude record. As the U-2's fuel ran low, the airplane suffered a flameout – forcing Crull to make a dead-stick, wheels-up landing at the Fujisawa glider strip, 10 miles from Atsugi. Crull emerged unhurt, but his airplane overran the runway and slid onto the grass.[...] Eventually, the airplane would be packed off to the US, repaired, and returned to service with Det. B in Turkey. From there, that airplane would make its final flight. It came on May 1, 1960, and its pilot was Francis Gary Powers. Powers was flying high over Sverdlovsk, USSR, when his U-2 came under attack by some 14 surface-to-air missiles.
8. ^ "NRO review and redaction guide (2006 ed.)" (PDF). National Reconnaissance Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
9. ^ a b c Банцер, Сергей (Sergey Bantser). "Как сбили Пауэрса" [How Powers was shot down] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
10. ^ a b Powers, Francis Gary; Gentry, Curt (1970). Operation Overflight: A Memoir of the U-2 Incident. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-14823-5.
11. ^ "Таким образом, всего по Lockheed U-2 и двум МиГ было выпущено семь ракет. Еще одну (восьмую) ракету выпустил зенитный ракетный дивизион соседнего полка под командованием полковника Ф. Савинова." Юрий Кнутов, Олег Фаличев. Бой в небе над Уралом Archived 6 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 13 January 2012
12. ^ Surface-to-Air Missile Site Near Sverdlovsk USSR, Central Intelligence Agency Photographic Intelligence Brief B-1009-59, 13 August 1959.
13. ^ Garthoff, Raymond L. (2001). A Journey Through the Cold War: A Memoir of Containment and Coexistence. The Brooking Institution. ISBN 0-8157-0102-0. p.86
14. ^ Goebel, Greg (1 July 2010). "A History of Biological Warfare (2)". Vectorsite.net. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
15. ^ Burrows, William E. (1986). Deep Black: Space Espionage and National Security. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-54124-3.
16. ^ Khrushchev, Sergei (September 2000) "The Day We Shot Down the U-2: Nikita Khrushchev's son remembers a great turning point of the Cold War, as seen from behind the Iron Curtain". Archived 7 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine American Heritage magazine. Volume 51, Issue 5.
17. ^ Brugioni and Taylor (2010), p. 346.
18. ^ a b c Orlov, Alexander. "The U-2 Program: A Russian Officer Remembers". Archived from the original on 13 July 2006. Retrieved 8 January 2007.
19. ^ Congressional Record, 5-5-60, pp. 9493–9494; quoted in Barrett (2005), p. 384.
20. ^ David M. Barrett, CIA and Congress: The Untold Story from Truman to Kennedy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), p. 384.
21. ^ Brugioni and Taylor (2010), pp. 346–347.
22. ^ a b Tucker, Spencer C. The Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social, and Military History. (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2008) pp. 1319–1320
23. ^ Beschloss (1986), pp. 234, 242–252; quoted in Barrett (2005), p. 386.
24. ^ Thompson to State Department, 5-9-60, FRUS: Eastern Europe, 1955–1957, Soviet Union, vol 10, pp. 519–521; quoted in Barrett (2005), p. 387.
25. ^ Whitman Diary, Whitman File, DDE diary, 5-9-60. Box 5, DDE Library; quoted in Barrett (2005), p. 387.
26. ^ Congressional Record, 5-9-60, pp. 9979–9987, A3941. "Briefing of Congressional Leadership ... 9 May 1960," Dulles FOIA Papers; quoted in Barrett (2005), pp. 388–389.
27. ^ Congressional Record, 5-10-60, pp. 9854–9855; quoted in Barrett (2005), pp. 395–397.
28. ^ Barrett (2005), p. 397.
29. ^ Public Papers of the Presidents, 1960, pp. 403–409, 414–15; quoted in Barrett (2005), pp. 398–400.
30. ^ Covert Action: An Effective Instrument of U.S. Foreign Policy? (txt) (Report). Congressional Research Service (published 2 February 2009). 21 October 1996. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
31. ^ "U-2 Incident Exhibit". National Cryptologic Museum. National Security Agency – Central Security Service. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 10 February 2007.
32. ^ a b "1960: East-West summit in tatters after spy plane row". BBC News. 17 May 1960. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
33. ^ a b c Cronkite, Walter (16 May 2005). "Loss of Spy Plane Sabotaged 1960 Summit". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 24 March 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
34. ^ Russia, 1960/05/05 (newsreel). Universal-International News. 5 May 1960. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
35. ^ Beschloss, Michael (1986). Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev, and the U-2 Affair. New York: Harper & Row. p. 274. ISBN 978-0-06-015565-0.
36. ^ Summit Crisis. Mr. K. In Ugly Mood Over U-2 Incident, 1960/05/16 (1960) (newsreel). Universal-International News. 16 May 1960. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
37. ^ a b "Modern History Sourcebook: Khrushchev and Eisenhower: Summit Statements, May 16, 1960". Archived from the original on 1 April 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
38. ^ Geelhoed, Bruce E.; Anthony O. Edmonds (2003). Eisenhower, Macmillan, and Allied Unity, 1957–1961. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-333-64227-6.
39. ^ a b c d Kapur, Nick (2018). Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 9780674988484. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
40. ^ Pedlow, Gregory W. and Welzenbach, Donald E., "The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954-1974. History Staff Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency. 1998.
41. ^ a b Tucker (2008), p. 1320.
42. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report 857. S/PV/857 23 May 1960. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
43. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report 858. S/PV/858 24 May 1960. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
44. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report 859. S/PV/859 25 May 1960. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
45. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report 860. S/PV/860 26 May 1960. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
46. ^ United Nations Security Council Verbatim Report 860. S/PV/860 page 17. 26 May 1960. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
47. ^ United Nations Security Council Document 4321. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: draft resolution S/4321 23 May 1960. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
48. ^ Martin W Bowman (2017). Lockheed F-104 Starfighter. Pen & Sword Books Limited. p. 243.
49. ^ M. Iqbal; Falak Sher; Rehmat Ullah Awan; Khalid Javed (2011). "Cultural Relations Between Pakistan and the Soviet Union During Ayub Khan's Period". Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies. 3 (3). Archived from the original on 9 January 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
50. ^ Hamid Hussain. "Tale of a love affair that never was: United States-Pakistan Defence Relations". Archived 4 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine The Defence Journal, June 2002.
51. ^ a b Khan, Feroz (7 November 2012). Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb. Stanford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8047-8480-1.
52. ^ "Pentagon's new demands". The News International. 14 March 2008. Archived from the original on 16 October 2008.
53. ^ Bogle, Lori Lynn, ed. (2001), The Cold War, Routledge, p. 104. ISBN 978-0815337218.
54. ^ a b https://www.nrk.no/nordland/kald-krig-og-u2-affaeren-_-norske-arkiver-er-fortsatt-gradert-1.16137711 Archived 16 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine. NRK.no. Retrieved 2022-10-16
55. ^ "Three days in 300 years: Spies on the bridge". Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
56. ^ Lax, Mark (2010). From Controversy to Cutting Edge: A History of the F-111 in Australian Service. Canberra, Australia: Air Power Development Centre, Department of Defence (Australia). p. 15. ISBN 978-1-920800-54-3. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
57. ^ Penkovsky, Oleg (1966). The Penkovsky Papers: The Russian Who Spied for the West. London: Collins. OCLC 2714427.
58. ^ "CIA documents show US never believed Gary Powers was shot down". The Times. Times Newspapers Limited. Archived from the original on 18 September 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
59. ^ Schwartz, Stephen I. (1998). Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940. Brookings Institution Press. p. 679. ISBN 0-8157-7774-4.
60. ^ a b Schwartz, Stephen I. (22 December 1997). "Letter to the editor: Stephen I. Schwartz, Director U.S. Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Project, Brookings Institution, Washington". Time. Archived from the original on 17 October 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
61. ^ UPI (4 October 1981). "Claim U-2 spy plane sabotaged". UPI. Archived from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2019.
62. ^ "Fletcher Prouty discusses U2 and Gary Powers". YouTube. 2 October 2021.
63. ^ McNary, Dave (20 May 2014 ). "Coen Brothers to Script Tom Hanks-Steven Spielberg's Cold War Drama" Archived 7 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Variety
64. ^ Karafantis, Layne (27 October 2015). "Bridge of Spies: An Opportunity to Bust Myths about the U-2 and the Capture of Gary Powers". AirSpaceBlog: Behind The Scenes at the National Air and Space Museum. The National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
65. ^ Jason Caffrey (3 January 2016). "Gary Powers: The U-2 spy pilot the US did not love". BBC magazine. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.

Further reading

[edit]

• Geelhoed, E. Bruce. Diplomacy Shot Down: The U-2 Crisis and Eisenhower’s Aborted Mission to Moscow, 1959–1960. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2020.
• Khrushchev, Sergei N. Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower. State College, PA: Penn State Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0271019277.
• McKinnon, Garrett. “The 1960 U-2 Crisis Reconsidered: Technology, Masculinity, and U.S. Airpower’s ‘Unmanning’.” Diplomatic History 48:4 (September 2024): 520-548. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhae029 copy of the article. also see this link for an analysis of this article]
• Miller, Jay. Lockheed U-2; Aerograph 3. Aerofax, Inc., 1983. ISBN 0942548043.
• Pickett, William B. "Eisenhower, Khrushchev, and the U-2 Affair: A Forty-six Year Retrospective." In: Clifford, J. Garry, and Theodore A. Wilson (eds). Presidents, Diplomats, and Other Mortals: Essays Honoring Robert H. Ferrell. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2007, pp. 137–153. ISBN 978-0826217479.
• Pocock, Chris. Dragon Lady: The History of the U-2 Spyplane. Osceola, WI: Motorbooks International, 1989. ISBN 978-0879383930.
• Pocock, Chris. 50 Years of the U-2: The Complete Illustrated History of the "Dragon Lady". Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History, 2005. ISBN 978-0764323461.
• Taubman, Phil. Secret Empire: Eisenhower, the CIA, and the Hidden Story of America's Space Espionage. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003. ISBN 0684856999.
• Thompson, William J. Khrushchev (1995) pp 220–230.
• Watry, David M. Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014.
• West, Nigel. Seven Spies Who Changed the World. London: Secker & Warburg, 1991. ISBN 978-0436566035.

External links

[edit]

• U-2 Spy Plane Incident (online documents). Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library.
• The U-2 airplane incident Archived 25 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, according to the U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian
• 1962 Russia frees US spy plane pilot
• The U-2 Spy Plane Incident – slideshow by Life magazine
• Eisenhower's speech addressing the U-2 incident
• "The CIA and the U-2 Program" (1998). Archived 5 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine Central Intelligence Agency.
• Central Museum of the Armed Forces in Moscow
• The short film U-2 Spy Trial. Ike Hits Powers Case Exploitation By Reds, 1960/08/18 (1960). is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
• The short film Russia, 1960/05/05 (1960) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
• The short film News Highlights of 1960, 1960/12/31 (1960) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
• The short film Summit Crisis. Mr. K. In Ugly Mood Over U-2 Incident, 1960/05/16 (1960) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
• The short film Powers Case. Ike States Policy on Spies and Open Skies, 1960/05/12 (1960) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
• A piece of wreckage from the incident is on display at the International Spy Museum in Washington, DC.

v t e Cold War
United States Soviet Union NATO Warsaw Pact ANZUS METO SEATO NEATO Rio Pact Non-Aligned Movement
1940s	Morgenthau Plan Jamaican political conflict Dekemvriana Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Operation Priboi Operation Jungle Occupation of the Baltic states Cursed soldiers Operation Unthinkable Gouzenko Affair Division of Korea Chinese Civil War Chinese Communist Revolution Indonesian National Revolution Civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949) Operation Beleaguer Operation Blacklist Forty Iran crisis of 1946 Greek Civil War Baruch Plan Corfu Channel incident Hukbalahap rebellion Turkish Straits crisis Restatement of Policy on Germany First Indochina War 1947 Polish parliamentary election 1947 Paraguayan Civil War Truman Doctrine Asian Relations Conference May 1947 crises Partition of India India–Pakistan war of 1947–1948 1947–1949 Palestine war 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 1948 Arab–Israeli War 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight Marshall Plan Comecon 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council Al-Wathbah uprising Tito–Stalin split Berlin Blockade La Violencia Annexation of Hyderabad Madiun Affair Western betrayal Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Malayan Emergency Nepalese Democracy Movement March 1949 Syrian coup d'état Operation Valuable
1950s	Bamboo curtain McCarthyism First Indochina War Korean War Arab Cold War (1952–1979) Egyptian revolution of 1952 Iraqi Intifada Mau Mau rebellion Batepá massacre East German uprising of 1953 1953 Plzeň Uprising 1953 Iranian coup d'état Massacre of 14 July 1953 in Paris 1953 Colombian coup d'état Pact of Madrid Bricker Amendment 1954 Syrian coup d'état Petrov Affair Domino theory 1954 Geneva Conference 1954 Paraguayan coup d'état 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Capture of the Tuapse First Taiwan Strait Crisis Jebel Akhdar War Algerian War Kashmir Princess Bandung Conference Geneva Summit (1955) Cyprus Emergency Vietnam War "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences" 1956 Poznań protests Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Polish October Suez Crisis "We will bury you" Operation Gladio Syrian Crisis of 1957 Sputnik crisis Ifni War Iraqi 14 July Revolution 1958 Lebanon crisis Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 1959 Mosul uprising 1959 Tibetan uprising Kitchen Debate Cuban Revolution Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution Sino-Soviet split Night Frost Crisis
1960s	Congo Crisis Laotian Civil War Vietnam War Simba rebellion 1960 U-2 incident Bay of Pigs Invasion 1960 Turkish coup d'état Albanian–Soviet split Iraqi–Kurdish conflict First Iraqi–Kurdish War Berlin Crisis of 1961 Berlin Wall Annexation of Goa Papua conflict Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation Sand War Portuguese Colonial War Angolan War of Independence Guinea-Bissau War of Independence Mozambican War of Independence Cuban Missile Crisis El Porteñazo Sino-Indian War Communist insurgency in Sarawak Ramadan Revolution Eritrean War of Independence North Yemen civil war 1963 Syrian coup d'état Assassination of John F. Kennedy Aden Emergency Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964 Shifta War Mexican Dirty War Tlatelolco massacre Guatemalan Civil War Colombian conflict 1964 Brazilian coup d'état Dominican Civil War Rhodesian Bush War Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966 Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) ASEAN Declaration 1966 Syrian coup d'état Cultural Revolution Cambodian Civil War Argentine Revolution South African Border War Korean DMZ Conflict 12-3 incident Greek junta 1967 Hong Kong riots Years of Lead (Italy) Six-Day War War of Attrition Dhofar rebellion Al-Wadiah War Nigerian Civil War Protests of 1968 May 68 Prague Spring USS Pueblo incident 1968 Polish political crisis Communist insurgency in Malaysia Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 17 July Revolution 1968 Peruvian coup d'état Revolutionary Government 1969 Sudanese coup d'état 1969 Libyan revolution Goulash Communism Sino-Soviet border conflict New People's Army rebellion Note Crisis
1970s	Détente Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Black September Alcora Exercise 1970 Syrian coup d'etat Western Sahara conflict Communist insurgency in Thailand December 1970 protests in Poland Koza riot Realpolitik Ping-pong diplomacy 1971 JVP insurrection Corrective revolution (Egypt) 1971 Turkish military memorandum 1971 Sudanese coup d'état 1971 Bolivian coup d'état Four Power Agreement on Berlin Bangladesh Liberation War 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 First Yemenite War Munich massacre 1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency Eritrean War of Independence Paris Peace Accords 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état 1973 Afghan coup d'état 1973 Chilean coup d'état Yom Kippur War 1973 oil crisis Carnation Revolution Ethiopian Civil War Vietnam War Spanish transition to democracy Metapolitefsi Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Second Iraqi–Kurdish War Turkish invasion of Cyprus 15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état Siege of Dhaka (1975) Sipahi-Janata revolution Angolan Civil War Indonesian invasion of East Timor Cambodian genocide June 1976 in Polish protests Mozambican Civil War Oromo conflict Ogaden War 1978 Somali coup attempt Western Sahara War Lebanese Civil War Sino-Albanian split Third Indochina War Cambodian–Vietnamese War Khmer Rouge insurgency Sino-Vietnamese War Operation Condor Dirty War (Argentina) 1976 Argentine coup d'état Egyptian–Libyan War German Autumn Korean Air Lines Flight 902 Nicaraguan Revolution Uganda–Tanzania War NDF Rebellion Chadian–Libyan War Second Yemenite War Grand Mosque seizure Iranian Revolution Saur Revolution New JEWEL Movement 1979 Herat uprising Seven Days to the River Rhine Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
1980s	Salvadoran Civil War Soviet–Afghan War Eritrean War of Independence Summer Olympic boycotts (1980 · 1984 · 1988) Gera Demands Peruvian Revolution August Agreements Solidarity Assassination of Jerzy Popiełuszko 1980 Turkish coup d'état Ugandan Bush War Gulf of Sidra incident Martial law in Poland Casamance conflict Falklands War 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War Ndogboyosoi War United States invasion of Grenada Able Archer 83 Star Wars 1985 Geneva Summit Iran–Iraq War Somali Rebellion Reykjavík Summit 1986 Black Sea incident South Yemeni crisis Toyota War 1987 Lieyu massacre Operation Denver 1987–1989 JVP insurrection Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 1988 Black Sea bumping incident 8888 Uprising Solidarity (Soviet reaction) Contras Central American crisis Operation RYAN Korean Air Lines Flight 007 People Power Revolution Glasnost Perestroika Bougainville conflict First Nagorno-Karabakh War Afghan Civil War United States invasion of Panama 1988 Polish strikes Polish Round Table Agreement 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Fall of the inner German border Velvet Revolution Romanian Revolution Peaceful Revolution
1990s	Mongolian Revolution of 1990 Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident Gulf War Min Ping Yu No. 5202 German reunification Yemeni unification Fall of communism in Albania Breakup of Yugoslavia Dissolution of the Soviet Union 1991 August Coup Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
Frozen conflicts	Abkhazia China-Taiwan Korea Kosovo South Ossetia Transnistria Sino-Indian border dispute North Borneo dispute
Foreign policy	Truman Doctrine Containment Eisenhower Doctrine Domino theory Hallstein Doctrine Kennedy Doctrine Johnson Doctrine Peaceful coexistence Ostpolitik Brezhnev Doctrine Nixon Doctrine Ulbricht Doctrine Carter Doctrine Reagan Doctrine Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine Rollback Kinmen Agreement
Ideologies	Capitalism Chicago school Conservatism American conservatism Democratic capitalism Keynesianism Liberalism Libertarianism Monetarism Neoclassical economics Reaganomics Supply-side economics Socialism Communism Marxism–Leninism Fidelismo Eurocommunism Guevarism Hoxhaism Juche Ho Chi Minh Thought Maoism Stalinism Titoism Trotskyism Other Imperialism Anti-imperialism Nationalism Ultranationalism Chauvinism Ethnic nationalism Racism Zionism Anti-Zionism Fascism Neo-Nazism Islamism Totalitarianism Authoritarianism Autocracy Liberal democracy Illiberal democracy Guided democracy Social democracy Third-worldism White supremacy White nationalism White separatism Apartheid Finlandization
Organizations	NATO SEATO METO EEC Warsaw Pact Comecon Non-Aligned Movement NN States ASEAN SAARC Safari Club
Propaganda	Pro-communist Active measures Izvestia Neues Deutschland Pravda Radio Moscow Rudé právo Trybuna Ludu TASS Soviet Life Pro-Western Amerika Crusade for Freedom Paix et Liberté Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Red Scare Voice of America
Technologicalcompetition	Arms race Nuclear arms race Space Race
Historians	Gar Alperovitz Thomas A. Bailey Michael Beschloss Manu Bhagavan Thomas Borstelmann Archie Brown Warren H. Carroll Chen Jian Adrian Cioroianu John Costello Michael Cox Nicholas J. Cull Nick Cullather Norman Davies Willem Drees Robert D. English Herbert Feis Robert Hugh Ferrell Sheila Fitzpatrick André Fontaine Anneli Ute Gabanyi John Lewis Gaddis Lloyd Gardner Timothy Garton Ash Gabriel Gorodetsky Greg Grandin Fred Halliday Jussi Hanhimäki Jamil Hasanli John Earl Haynes Patrick J. Hearden James Hershberg Tvrtko Jakovina Tony Judt Oleg Khlevniuk Harvey Klehr Gabriel Kolko Bruce R. Kuniholm Walter LaFeber Walter Laqueur Melvyn P. Leffler Fredrik Logevall Geir Lundestad Vojtech Mastny Jack F. Matlock Jr. Thomas J. McCormick Robert J. McMahon Timothy Naftali Marius Oprea David S. Painter William B. Pickett Ronald E. Powaski Stephen G. Rabe Yakov M. Rabkin Sergey Radchenko M. E. Sarotte Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Ellen Schrecker Giles Scott-Smith Shen Zhihua Timothy Snyder Frances S. Saunders Michael Szonyi Fyodor Tertitskiy Athan Theoharis Andrew Thorpe Vladimir Tismăneanu Patrick Vaughan Alex von Tunzelmann Odd Arne Westad William Appleman Williams Jonathan Reed Winkler Rudolph Winnacker Ken Young Vladislav M. Zubok
Espionage andintelligence	List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States Soviet espionage in the United States Russian espionage in the United States American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation CIA and the Cultural Cold War CIA MI5 MI6 United States involvement in regime change Soviet involvement in regime change MVD KGB Stasi
See also	Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War Soviet Union–United States relations Soviet Union–United States summits Russia–NATO relations War on terror Brinkmanship Pax Atomica Second Cold War Russian Revolution
Category List of conflicts Timeline

v t e Aviation accidents and incidents in the Soviet Union in the 1960s
1960	Aeroflot Flight 315 (February) U-2 incident (May) Aeroflot Flight 207 (June) RB-47 shootdown incident (July) Aeroflot Flight 036 (August) Austrian Airlines Flight 901 (September)
1961	Aeroflot Flight 068 (March) Aeroflot Flight 245 (17 December) Mineralnye Vody Aeroflot Il-18 crash (31 December)
1962	Aeroflot Flight 902 (June) Aeroflot Flight 415 (July) Aeroflot Flight 03 (3 September) Aeroflot Flight 213 (18 September)
1963	Aeroflot Flight 191 (March) Aeroflot Flight 25 (April) Aeroflot Flight 012 (July) Aeroflot Flight 366 (21 August) Aeroflot Flight 663 (24 August)
1964	Aeroflot Flight 721 (September)
1965	Aeroflot Flight 101/X-20 (January) Aeroflot Flight 542 (7 March) Aeroflot Flight 513 (8 March) Khanty-Mansiysk Aeroflot An-24 crash (20 March) Aeroflot Flight 99 (November)
1966	Aeroflot Flight 302 (16 February) Aeroflot Flight 065 (17 February) Aeroflot Flight 2723 (April)
1967	Aeroflot Flight 5003 (January) Aeroflot Flight 2230 (November) Aeroflot Flight L-51 (December)
1968	Aeroflot Flight 1668 (January) Aeroflot Flight 15 (February) Death of Yuri Gagarin (March) Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A (July)
1969	Yukhnov mid-air collision (23 June) Aeroflot Flight F-28 (28 June) Aeroflot Flight N-826 (3 August) Vnukovo Airport Il-18 crash (26 August)
1950–1959 ◄ 1960–1969 ► 1970–1979

v t e Aviation accidents and incidents in 1960 (1960)
Jan 6 National Airlines Flight 2511Jan 18 Capital Airlines Flight 20Jan 19 SAS Flight 871Jan 21 Avianca Flight 671Feb 5 Cochabamba Douglas DC-4 crashFeb 25 Rio de Janeiro mid-air collisionFeb 26 Aeroflot Flight 315Feb 26 Alitalia Flight 618Mar 17 Northwest Airlines Flight 710May 1 U-2 incidentJun 10 Aeroflot Flight 207Jun 10 Trans Australia Airlines Flight 538Jun 24 Real Transportes Aéreos Flight 435Jul 1 RB-47 incidentJul 14 Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 1-11Jul 16 Danish football air crashJul 19 Trans Australia Airlines Flight 408Jul 21 Chicago Helicopter Airways Flight 698Aug 17 Aeroflot Flight 036Aug 29 Air France Flight 343Sep 19 World Airways Flight 830Sep 26 Austrian Airlines Flight 901Oct 4 Eastern Air Lines Flight 375Oct 29 Cal Poly football team plane crashNov 20 F-84 Thunderstreak crashNov 23 Philippine Air Lines Flight S26Dec 16 New York mid-air collisionDec 17 Munich C-131 crashDec 22 Philippine Air Lines Flight S85
1959   ◄    ►   1961

v t e Soviet Union–United States relations
Diplomatic posts	Embassy of the Soviet Union, Washington, D.C. Ambassadors of the Soviet Union to the United States Soviet ambassador's residence Embassy of the United States, Moscow Ambassadors of the United States to the Soviet Union Spaso House Consulate-General of the Soviet Union, New York City John Henry Hammond House Consulate-General of the Soviet Union, San Francisco Elmcroft Estate Lothrop Mansion Pioneer Point Permanent Mission of the Soviet Union to the United Nations Killenworth Russian Soviet Government Bureau Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs
Diplomacy	Lend-Lease Lend-Lease Sherman tanks Moscow Conference (1941) Moscow Conference (1942) Moscow Conference (1943) Declaration of the Four Nations Moscow Conference (1944) Yalta Conference Potsdam Conference Tehran Conference Moscow Conference (1945) Stalin Note Berlin Conference (1954) Geneva Summit (1955) Lacy-Zarubin Agreement United States restitution to the Soviet Union State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States United Nations Security Council Resolution 135 Dartmouth Conference Vienna summit Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament Moscow–Washington hotline Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Glassboro Summit Conference Détente Linkage Bion program Kosmos 782 Kosmos 936 Kosmos 1129 Kosmos 1514 Kosmos 1667 Kosmos 1887 Kosmos 2044 TOPAZ nuclear reactor Moscow Summit (1972) Washington Summit (1973) 1973 United States–Soviet Union wheat deal Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions Geneva Conference (1973) Moscow Summit (1974) Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control NATO Double-Track Decision Zero Option Geneva Summit (1985) Reykjavík Summit Washington Summit (1987) Geneva Accords (1988) Moscow Summit (1988) Governors Island Summit US/USSR Joint Statement on Uniform Acceptance of Rules of International Law Governing Innocent Passage Malta Summit Helsinki Summit (1990) Madrid peace conference letter of invitation European Advisory Commission Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls Council for American–Soviet Trade Council of Foreign Ministers
Cold War	Origins Timeline 1947–1948 1948–1953 1953–1962 1962–1979 1979–1985 1985–1991 Espionage Cold War in Asia Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine Nuclear arms race Space Race Timeline United States war plans (1945–1950) U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation Active Measures Working Group Air-to-air combat losses between the Soviet Union and the United States CIA activities in the Soviet Union Containment Rollback Red Scare The Moscow rules Seven Days to the River Rhine Sheldon names Strategic Defense Initiative United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union Bomber gap Missile gap NSC 68 Smolensk Archive Soviet Military Power Operation Shocker Plan Totality Nitrophenyl pentadienal Venona project Operation Anadyr Operation Breakthrough Operation Cedar Operation Chrome Dome Operation Cyclone Operation Dropshot Operation Giant Lance Operation Gold Operation Denver Operation Ivy Bells Operation Keelhaul Operation Lincoln Operation Monopoly Operation RYAN Operation Safe Haven (1957) Operation Sunrise 7th Air Escadrille Project Azorian Project Coldfeet Project Dark Gene Project Genetrix Project Grab Bag Project HOMERUN Project Moby Dick Project Mogul Project Hula
Incidents	Sisson Documents Turkish Straits crisis Welles Declaration Gorin v. United States Atomic spies Baruch Plan Iran crisis of 1946 Niš incident Berlin Blockade Kasenkina Case Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp. Hollow Nickel Case Moscow Signal Capture of the Tuapse We will bury you Kuzma's mother Sputnik crisis Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959 1958 C-130 shootdown incident 1960 U-2 incident 1960 RB-47 shootdown incident Transfermium Wars Arrest of Mark Kaminsky and Harvey Bennett Martin and Mitchell defection Shoe-banging incident Berlin Crisis of 1961 1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident Cuban Missile Crisis Crateology SS Metallurg Anosov Ich bin ein Berliner 1964 T-39 shootdown incident Pan Am Flight 708 Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair Aeroflot Flight 244 Gambell incident Project Azorian Soviet submarine K-129 (1960) Feodor Fedorenko Siberian Seven United States grain embargo against the Soviet Union 1980 Summer Olympics boycott Yellow rain Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhhorod pipeline Evil Empire speech Korean Air Lines Flight 007 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident Able Archer 83 Autumn Forge 83 1984 Summer Olympics boycott We begin bombing in five minutes Arthur D. Nicholson John Anthony Walker 1986 Black Sea incident Soviet submarine K-219 Karl Linnas Tear down this wall! Yeniseysk-15 1988 Black Sea bumping incident Chicken Kiev speech
Military relations	Allied Control Council Allied Kommandatura Allied technological cooperation during World War II ALSIB Arctic convoys of World War II Berlin Victory Parade of 1945 Elbe Day Four Policemen Four Power Naval Commission Four-Power Authorities GIUK gap Line of Contact Military liaison missions Northwest Staging Route Pacific Route Persian Corridor Persian Gulf Command Warsaw airlift Tripartite Naval Commission Eisenhower Doctrine Truman Doctrine Reagan Doctrine Stimson Doctrine Bell P-63 Kingcobra Belorussia-class cargo ship SS Dakotan SS Indigirka SS Iowan Tupolev Tu-4 Tupolev Tu-70 Tupolev Tu-80 USCGC Southwind USS West Bridge United States and the Russian Revolution American Expeditionary Force, North Russia American Expeditionary Force, Siberia North Russia intervention Siberian intervention
Legislation	Russian Famine Relief Act Executive Order 8484 Jackson–Vanik amendment Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991 Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992 FRIENDSHIP Act of 1993
Treaties	Moscow Declarations Potsdam Agreement Wanfried agreement McCloy–Zorin Accords Outer Space Treaty Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space Four Power Agreement on Berlin Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes U.S.–Soviet Incidents at Sea agreement Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War Threshold Test Ban Treaty Strategic Arms Limitation Talks National technical means of verification Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany START I Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe
Organizations	American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia Ark Project American National Exhibition Kitchen Debate American Peace Mobilization American Relief Administration American Russian Institute American University speech American–Soviet friendship movement American-Soviet Peace Walks Amerika (magazine) Amtorg Trading Corporation And you are lynching Negroes Androgynous Peripheral Attach System Anglo-American School of Moscow Anglo-American School of St. Petersburg Ansonia Clock Company Apollo–Soyuz Apollo-Soyuz (cigarette) Center for Citizen Initiatives Communist Party USA Dewey Commission Institute for US and Canadian Studies International Conference of Laser Applications International Cospas-Sarsat Programme International Publishers Kennan Institute Kersten Committee Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews Friends of Soviet Russia Foundation for Social Inventions Gennady Alferenko Friendship Flight '89 Friendship Flight (Alaska Airlines) Fund for Armenian Relief National Committee for a Free Europe National Council of American–Soviet Friendship Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia Russian-American Industrial Corporation Russian War Relief Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry Society for Technical Aid to Soviet Russia Soviet Government Purchasing Commission in the U.S. U.S. Commission on the Ukraine Famine U.S. Peace Council
Related	Russian Empire–United States relations Russia–United States relations Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C. 1972 Olympic men's basketball final 1976 Philadelphia Flyers–Red Army game 1989 visit by Boris Yeltsin to the United States Baltic Freedom Day Bush legs Captive Nations Captive Nations Week GAZ Goodwill Games Glasnost Bowl Little Joe Miracle on Ice New world order (politics) Pushinka Refusenik SAGE Self-propelled barge T-36 Shvetsov M-25 Super Series Sovereignty of Puerto Rico during the Cold War Sovfoto Triangular diplomacy U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge US vs. USSR radio chess match 1945 USA–USSR Track and Field Dual Meet Series Uzel White Coke World Chess Championship 1972 X Article Yardymly Russian Life Soviet Interview Project Soviet submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Comparison of the AK-47 and M16 Bobby Fischer Georgi Bolshakov Samantha Smith Roswell Garst Suzanne Massie Who's Who in the CIA Eagles East The Admiral's Daughter Deep Black The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks Stalingrad Free to Be... a Family "In Soviet Georgia" Red Wave "Ordinary People"
Category:Soviet Union–United States relations

Authority control databases
International	GND FAST
National	United States France BnF data Israel
Other	IdRef Yale LUX