Animal Development - The Larval Phase And Metamorphosis

The larval stage

The development of the embryo into a larva rather than directly into an organism similar to the adult has various advantages. At the time of emergence from the egg, the new individual is relatively small, and the organization that enables the adult to lead a particular mode of life may not be suitable for a miniature copy of the adult. The larva may have to procure food for itself and, being small, may not be able to feed in the same way as the adult. It also may not be able to use effectively the same defense mechanisms the adult possesses. The larval stage enables an animal to avoid such hazards; it provides a mode of life and corresponding organization better suited to the smaller size of the newly emerged organism. Another advantage is that the larva may be able to exploit an entirely different environment because its organization is very different from that of the adults. A terrestrial adult may have aquatic larvae, a flying adult may have burrowing larvae, and a parasitic adult may have a free-living larva. A third advantage of a larval stage emerges in animals whose adult stages are sessile or restricted in their movements; the larvae can move freely, either of their own accord or on water currents. In this way the larvae of sedentary animals serve for the dispersal of the species. Lastly, the larval stage is of great advantage for certain internal parasites, which, once inside a host, cannot transfer to another. New hosts are infected instead by the larval stages. (The usual means of attaining this end is for the parasite to produce enormous quantities of eggs and rely on the passive entry of the eggs into the new host with food. A more efficient way, however, is for a mobile larva to enter the new host actively.)

A large number of marine invertebrates possess floating larvae that have hairlike projections (cilia) as their means of locomotion. There are three main types of larvae, characteristic of large subdivisions of the animal kingdom.

The planula larva of coelenterates has an elongated shape and cilia covering its entire surface. The internal organization is simple, hardly beyond differentiation into ectoderm and endoderm in the interior. The larva does not feed but serves only for dispersal.

The trochophore larva is found in many marine invertebrates. Typically, as in polychaetes, it has an alimentary canal with mouth and anus and a ring of ciliated cells arranged anterior to the mouth. It also possesses a sensory organ and rudiments of mesoderm. Cilia around the mouth bring in food—unicellular plants and other small particles. The larva thus not only serves for dispersal but also feeds and grows before it transforms into an adult worm. Other trochophore larvae are found in marine mollusks and in certain marine worms. The larva of echinoderms is similar to the trochophore in possessing a gut and a ciliary band, but the arrangement of the latter is different. The echinoderm larva also feeds and grows as well as serves for dispersal.

Larvae of very different kinds are found in many arthropods. In crustaceans the larva, called nauplius, does not differ substantially in mode of life or means of locomotion from the adult but has fewer appendages than the adult. A typical crustacean nauplius has three pairs of legs and an unpaired simple eye. Additional pairs of appendages and paired compound eyes appear in the course of a sometimes prolonged development. In insects the larva differs from the adult by the absence of wings but, in addition, may have a different mode of life and different way of feeding. Among chordates the tunicates (sea squirts) deserve attention; the larval form is a free-swimming creature, showing unmistakable relation to vertebrates, but the adult is sedentary, with much reduced nervous and muscular systems. The tadpole of a frog differs from the adult in being totally aquatic, in possessing a tail and gills for respiration, and in having a mouth adapted for feeding on plants. The adult frog is adapted to land life, except for reproductive periods, has no tail and no gills, and is an active predator.