Cellular Respiration | Definition, Equation, Cycle, Process, Reactants ...

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• Introduction
• Role of mitochondria
• Main metabolic processes
  • Glycolysis
  • Tricarboxylic acid cycle
  • Oxidative phosphorylation

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• University of Anbar - Cellular Respiration
• American Journal of Physiology-Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology - Rejuvenating cellular respiration for optimizing respiratory function: targeting mitochondria
• Open Oregon Educational Resources - MHCC Biology 112: Biology for Health Professions - An Overview of Cellular Respiration
• Thompson Rivers University - Human Biology - Cellular Respiration
• Milne Library - Inanimate Life - Cellular Respiration
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• Roger Williams University Open Publishing - Cellular Respiration
• The University of Hawaiʻi Pressbooks - Biology - Regulation of Cellular Respiration

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Quick Summary Ask the Chatbot a Question Also known as: cell respiration, tissue respiration Written and fact-checked by Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Britannica Editors Last updated Nov. 28, 2025 •History Table of Contents Table of Contents Quick Summary Ask the Chatbot a Question Top Questions

• What is cellular respiration?
• Why do living things need cellular respiration?
• Where does cellular respiration take place in a cell?
• What are the main stages of cellular respiration?
• How does glucose get broken down during cellular respiration?
• What are the main products and byproducts of cellular respiration?

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cellular respiration, the process by which organisms combine oxygen with foodstuff molecules, diverting the chemical energy in these substances into life-sustaining activities and discarding, as waste products, carbon dioxide and water. Organisms that do not depend on oxygen degrade foodstuffs in a process called fermentation. (For longer treatments of various aspects of cellular respiration, see tricarboxylic acid cycle and metabolism.)

Role of mitochondria

One objective of the degradation of foodstuffs is to convert the energy contained in chemical bonds into the energy-rich compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which captures the chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes. In eukaryotic cells (that is, any cells or organisms that possess a clearly defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles) the enzymes that catalyze the individual steps involved in respiration and energy conservation are located in highly organized rod-shaped compartments called mitochondria. In microorganisms the enzymes occur as components of the cell membrane. A liver cell has about 1,000 mitochondria; large egg cells of some vertebrates have up to 200,000.

Main metabolic processes

Biologists differ somewhat with respect to the names, descriptions, and the number of stages of cellular respiration. The overall process, however, can be distilled into three main metabolic stages or steps: glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation (respiratory-chain phosphorylation).

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Glycolysis

Glycolysis (which is also known as the glycolytic pathway or the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway) is a sequence of 10 chemical reactions taking place in most cells that breaks down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules. Energy released during the breakdown of glucose and other organic fuel molecules from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins during glycolysis is captured and stored in ATP. In addition, the compound nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is converted to NADH during this step (see below). Pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis then enter the mitochondria, where they are each converted into a compound known as acetyl coenzyme A, which then enters the TCA cycle. (Some sources consider the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl coenzyme A as a distinct step, called pyruvate oxidation or the transition reaction, in the process of cellular respiration.)

Tricarboxylic acid cycle

The TCA cycle (which is also known as the Krebs, or citric acid, cycle) plays a central role in the breakdown, or catabolism, of organic fuel molecules. The cycle is made up of eight steps catalyzed by eight different enzymes that produce energy at several different stages. Most of the energy obtained from the TCA cycle, however, is captured by the compounds NAD+ and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and converted later to ATP. The products of a single turn of the TCA cycle consist of three NAD+ molecules, which are reduced (through the process of adding hydrogen, H+) to the same number of NADH molecules, and one FAD molecule, which is similarly reduced to a single FADH2 molecule. These molecules go on to fuel the third stage of cellular respiration, whereas carbon dioxide, which is also produced by the TCA cycle, is released as a waste product.

Oxidative phosphorylation

In the oxidative phosphorylation stage, each pair of hydrogen atoms removed from NADH and FADH2 provides a pair of electrons that—through the action of a series of iron-containing hemoproteins, the cytochromes—eventually reduces one atom of oxygen to form water. In 1951 it was discovered that the transfer of one pair of electrons to oxygen results in the formation of three molecules of ATP.

Key People: Otto Warburg (Show more) Related Topics: tricarboxylic acid cycle cytochrome glycolysis aerobic oxidation glyoxylate cycle (Show more) On the Web: Biology LibreTexts - Cellular Respiration (Nov. 28, 2025) (Show more) See all related content

Oxidative phosphorylation is the major mechanism by which the large amounts of energy in foodstuffs are conserved and made available to the cell. The series of steps by which electrons flow to oxygen permits a gradual lowering of the energy of the electrons. This part of the oxidative phosphorylation stage is sometimes called the electron transport chain. Some descriptions of cellular respiration that focus on the importance of the electron transport chain have changed the name of the oxidative phosphorylation stage to the electron transport chain.

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