Family of insects"Inchworm" redirects here. For other uses, see Inchworm (disambiguation). "Geometridae" redirects here. For the mollusc family, see Geomitridae.
Geometer mothTemporal range: Priabonian to Recent 35–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
Chiasmia species from Ennominae
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Lepidoptera
Superfamily:
Geometroidea
Family:
GeometridaeLeach, 1815
Subfamilies
Alsophilinae (disputed)
Archiearinae
Desmobathrinae (disputed)
Ennominae
Geometrinae
Larentiinae (but see text)
Oenochrominae
Orthostixinae
Sterrhinae
The geometer moths are moths belonging to the family Geometridae of the insect order Lepidoptera, the moths and butterflies. Their scientific name derives from the Ancient Greek γεω (geo) (derivative form of γῆ or γαῖα "the earth"), and μέτρον (métron) "measure" in reference to the way their larvae, or inchworms, appear to measure the earth as they move along in a looping fashion.[1] Geometridae is a very large family, containing around 23,000 described species;[2][3] over 1400 species from six subfamilies are indigenous to North America alone.[1] A well-known member is the peppered moth, Biston betularia, which has been the subject of numerous studies in population genetics. Several other geometer moths are notorious pests.
Caterpillars
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The name "Geometridae" ultimately derives from Latin geometra from Greek γεωμέτρης ("geometer", "earth-measurer"). This refers to the means of locomotion of the larvae or caterpillars, which lack the full complement of prolegs seen in other caterpillars, with only two or three pairs at the posterior end instead of the usual five pairs. Equipped with appendages at both ends of the body, a caterpillar clasps with its front legs and draws up the hind end, then clasps with the hind end (prolegs) and reaches out for a new front attachment, creating the impression that it measures its journey. The caterpillars are accordingly called "loopers", "spanworms", or "inchworms" after their characteristic looping gait. The cabbage looper and soybean looper are not inchworms but caterpillars of a different family. In many species of geometer moths, the inchworms are about 25 mm (1.0 in) long. They tend to be green, grey, or brownish and hide from predators by fading into the background or resembling twigs. When disturbed, many inchworms stand erect and motionless on their prolegs, further increasing this resemblance. Some have humps or filaments, or cover themselves in plant material. They are gregarious and are generally smooth. Some eat lichen, flowers, or pollen, while some, such as the Hawaiian species of the genus Eupithecia, are carnivorous. Certain destructive inchworm species are referred to as "cankerworms".[4]
In 2019, the first geometrid caterpillar in Baltic amber was discovered by German scientists. Described under Eogeometer vadens, it measured about 5 mm (0.20 in) and was estimated to be 44 million years old, dating back to the Eocene epoch. It was described as the earliest evidence for the subfamily of Ennominae, particularly the tribe Boarmiini.[5]
Locomotion of a looper
A geometrid caterpillar camouflaged as a broken twig
Caterpillar locomotion
Synchlora aerata caterpillar dressed with pieces of flowers as camouflage
Many geometrids have slender abdomens and broad wings which are usually held flat with the hindwings visible. As such, they appear rather butterfly-like, but in most respects they are typical moths. The majority fly at night. They possess a frenulum to link the wings, and the antennae of the males are often feathered. They tend to blend into the background, often with intricate, wavy patterns on their wings. In some species, females have reduced wings (e.g. winter moth and fall cankerworm).[1] Most are of moderate size, about 3 cm (1.2 in) in wingspan, but a range of sizes occur, from 10–50 mm (0.39–1.97 in), and a few (e.g., Dysphania species) reach an even larger size. They have distinctive paired tympanal organs at the base of the abdomen (these are absent in flightless females).[citation needed]
Selenia tetralunaria species from Ennominae
Scopula species
Tetracis cachexiata in the US state of Ohio
Alsophila pometaria, wingless adult female
Systematics
[edit] Main article: List of geometrid genera
Molecular phylogenetic indicate that the Geometridae are composed of eight large clades, which roughly correspond to the traditional subfamilies within the group.[6] However, the Oenochrominae are polyphyletic, falling in three clades within the tree.[6]
Traditionally, the Archiearinae were held to sister to the other geometer moth lineages, as their caterpillars have well-developed prolegs.[citation needed] However, some species that were traditionally placed in the Archiearinae actually appear to belong to other subfamilies; thus, it may be that in a few cases, the prolegs which were originally lost in the ancestral geometer moths re-evolved as an atavism.[7][8]
Moreover, later work suggested that the Larentiinae are actually the sister lineage to all other groups in the family, as indicated by their numerous plesiomorphies and DNA sequence data;[citation needed] they may even be considered a separate family of Geometroidea.[citation needed]
Molecular phylogenetics with broad taxonomic sampling indicates that a clade consisting of the Sterrhinae and some members of the Oenochrominae is sister to all remaining lineages in the Geometridae.[6]
The placement of the example species follows a 1990 systematic treatment; it may be outdated.
Larentiinae – about 5,800 species, includes the pug moths, mostly temperate, might be a distinct family.[7][8]
Sterrhinae – about 2,800 species, mostly tropical, might belong to same family as the Larentiinae.[7]
Birch mocha, Cyclophora albipunctata
False mocha, Cyclophora porata
Maiden's blush, Cyclophora punctaria
Riband wave, Idaea aversata
Small fan-footed wave, Idaea biselata
Single-dotted wave, Idaea dimidiata
Small scallop, Idaea emarginata
Idaea filicata
Dwarf cream wave, Idaea fuscovenosa
Rusty wave, Idaea inquinata
Purple-bordered gold, Idaea muricata
Bright wave, Idaea ochrata
Least carpet, Idaea rusticata
Small dusty wave, Idaea seriata
Purple-barred yellow, Lythria cruentaria (formerly in Larentiinae)
Vestal, Rhodometra sacraria
Common pink-barred, Rhodostrophia vibicaria
Middle lace border, Scopula decorata
Cream wave, Scopula floslactata
Small blood-vein, Scopula imitaria
Lewes wave, Scopula immorata
Lesser cream wave, Scopula immutata
Mullein wave, Scopula marginepunctata
Zachera moth, Chiasmia defixaria
Blood-vein, Timandra comae
Eastern blood-vein, Timandra griseata
Desmobathrinae – pantropical
Geometrinae – emerald moths, about 2,300 named species, most tropical
Archiearinae – twelve[9] species; holarctic, southern Andes and Tasmania, though the latter some seem to belong to the Ennominae,[8] larvae have all the prolegs but most are reduced.
^"Lepidoptera Barcode of Life". Archived from the original on 2017-07-12. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
^Scoble, M. J. (1999), Geometrid Moths of the World: A Catalogue (Lepidoptera, Geometridae) (in German), vol. 1 and 2, Stenstrup: CSIRO Publishing and Apollo Books, p. 1016
^Frank, Steven D. (1 December 2014). "Bad neighbors: urban habitats increase cankerworm damage to non-host understory plants". Urban Ecosystems. 17 (4): 1135–1145. Bibcode:2014UrbEc..17.1135F. doi:10.1007/s11252-014-0368-x. ISSN 1573-1642.
^ abcMurillo-Ramos, Leidys; Brehm, Gunnar; Sihvonen, Pasi; Hausmann, Axel; Holm, Sille; Reza Ghanavi, Hamid; Õunap, Erki; Truuverk, Andro; Staude, Hermann; Friedrich, Egbert; Tammaru, Toomas; Wahlberg, Niklas (2019-08-27). "A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Geometridae (Lepidoptera) with a focus on enigmatic small subfamilies". PeerJ. 7 e7386. doi:10.7717/peerj.7386. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 6716565. PMID 31523494.
^ abcÕunap, Erki; Viidalepp, Jaan; Saarma, Urmas (2008). "Systematic position of Lythriini revised: transferred from Larentiinae to Sterrhinae (Lepidoptera, Geometridae)". Zoologica Scripta. 37 (4): 405–413. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2008.00327.x. S2CID 85800529.
^ abcdYoung, Catherine J. (2008). "Characterisation of the Australian Nacophorini using adult morphology, and phylogeny of the Geometridae based on morphological characters" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1736: 1–141. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1736.1.1.
^Cockerell, T. D. A. (1922). "A fossil Moth from Florissant, Colorado". American Museum Novitates (34): 1–2.
Further reading
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Hausmann, A. (2001). The Geometrid Moths of Europe. Vol. 1: Introduction. Archiearinae, Orthostixinae, Desmobathrinae, Alsophilinae, Geometrinae -- v. 4. Larentiinae II (Perizomini and Eupitheciini). Apollo Books.
Minet, J.; Scoble, M. J. (1999). "17: The Drepanoid / Geometroid Assemblage". In Kristensen, N. P. (ed.). Handbuch der Zoologie. Eine Naturgeschichte der Stämme des Tierreiches / Handbook of Zoology. A Natural History of the phyla of the Animal Kingdom. Vol. 4: Arthropoda: Insecta. Part 35: Lepidoptera, Moths and Butterflies. Vol. 1: Evolution, Systematics, and Biogeography. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Scoble, M. J., ed. (1999), Geometrid Moths of the World: A Catalogue, CSIRO Publishing, ISBN 0-643-06304-8
External links
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"Family Geometridae" at Insecta.pro
Anacamptodes pergracilis, cypress looper on the University of Florida / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures website
Geometridae species in New Zealand Archived 2015-11-07 at the Wayback Machine
A geometrid caterpillar camouflaged as a broken twig 
Caterpillar locomotion 
Synchlora aerata caterpillar dressed with pieces of flowers as camouflage 
Geometrid moth (Geometridae) "inchworm" caterpillar 
Geometrid moth (Geometridae) "inchworm" caterpillar 
Selenia tetralunaria species from Ennominae 
Scopula species 
Tetracis cachexiata in the US state of Ohio 
Alsophila pometaria, wingless adult female 
