Human Respiratory System - Chemoreceptors - Encyclopedia Britannica

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• Introduction
• The design of the respiratory system
  • Morphology of the upper airways
    • The nose
    • The pharynx
  • Morphology of the lower airways
    • The larynx
    • The trachea and the stem bronchi
  • Structural design of the airway tree
  • The lungs
    • Gross anatomy
    • Pulmonary segments
    • The intrapulmonary conducting airways: bronchi and bronchioles
    • The gas-exchange region
    • Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
    • Lung development
• Control of breathing
  • Central organization of respiratory neurons
  • Chemoreceptors
    • Peripheral chemoreceptors
    • Central chemoreceptors
    • Muscle and lung receptors
  • Variations in breathing
    • Exercise
    • Sleep
• The mechanics of breathing
  • The lung–chest system
  • The role of muscles
  • The respiratory pump and its performance
• Gas exchange
  • Transport of oxygen
  • Transport of carbon dioxide
  • Gas exchange in the lung
  • Abnormal gas exchange
• Interplay of respiration, circulation, and metabolism
• Adaptations
  • High altitudes
  • Swimming and diving

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External Websites

• Healthline - All About the Human Respiratory System
• WebMD - Respiratory System
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• University of West Florida Pressbooks - Medical Terminology for Healthcare Professions - Respiratory System
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Structure of the Respiratory System, related to function
• Medicine LibreTexts - The Respiratory System
• MSD Manual - Consumer Version - Overview of the Respiratory System
• Kids Health - For Parents - Lungs and Respiratory System
• Open Oregon Educational Resources - Anatomy and Physiology 2e - Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
• Thompson Rivers University Pressbooks - Human Biology - Structure and Function of the Respiratory System
• OpenStax - Anatomy and Physiology 2e - Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System

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Chemoreceptors

in human respiratory system in Control of breathing Ask Anything Written by Ewald R. Weibel Emeritus Professor of Anatomy, University of Bern, Switzerland. Author of The Pathway for Oxygen. Ewald R. WeibelAll Fact-checked by Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Britannica Editors Last updated Dec. 5, 2025 •History Britannica AI Ask Anything Table of Contents Table of Contents Ask Anything

One way in which breathing is controlled is through feedback by chemoreceptors. There are two kinds of respiratory chemoreceptors: arterial chemoreceptors, which monitor and respond to changes in the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, and central chemoreceptors in the brain, which respond to changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in their immediate environment. Ventilation levels behave as if they were regulated to maintain a constant level of carbon dioxide partial pressure and to ensure adequate oxygen levels in the arterial blood. Increased activity of chemoreceptors caused by hypoxia or an increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide augments both the rate and depth of breathing, which restores partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide to their usual levels. On the other hand, too much ventilation depresses the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, which leads to a reduction in chemoreceptor activity and a diminution of ventilation. During sleep and anesthesia, lowering carbon dioxide levels three to four millimetres of mercury below values occurring during wakefulness can cause a total cessation of breathing (apnea).

Peripheral chemoreceptors

Hypoxia, or the reduction of oxygen supply to tissues to below physiological levels (produced, for example, by a trip to high altitudes), stimulates the carotid and aortic bodies, the principal arterial chemoreceptors. The two carotid bodies are small organs located in the neck at the bifurcation of each of the two common carotid arteries into the internal and external carotid arteries. This organ is extraordinarily well perfused and responds to changes in the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood flowing through it rather than to the oxygen content of that blood (the amount of oxygen chemically combined with hemoglobin). The sensory nerve from the carotid body increases its firing rate hyperbolically as the partial pressure of oxygen falls. In addition to responding to hypoxia, the carotid body increases its activity linearly as the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood is raised. This arterial blood parameter rises and falls as air enters and leaves the lungs, and the carotid body senses these fluctuations, responding more to rapid than to slow changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Larger oscillations in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide occur with breathing as metabolic rate is increased. The amplitude of these fluctuations, as reflected in the size of carotid body signals, may be used by the brain to detect changes in the metabolic rate and to produce appropriate adjustment in ventilation.

The carotid body communicates with medullary respiratory neurons through sensory fibres that travel with the carotid sinus nerve, a branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve. Microscopically, the carotid body consists of two different types of cells. The type I cells are arranged in groups and are surrounded by type II cells. The type II cells are generally not thought to have a direct role in chemoreception. Fine sensory nerve fibres are found in juxtaposition to type I cells, which, unlike type II cells, contain electron-dense vesicles. Acetylcholine, catecholamines, and neuropeptides such as enkephalins, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, and substance P, are located within the vesicles. It is thought that hypoxia and hypercapnia (excessive carbon dioxide in the blood) cause the release of one or more of these neuroactive substances from the type I cells, which then act on the sensory nerve. It is possible to interfere independently with the responses of the carotid body to carbon dioxide and oxygen, which suggests that the same mechanisms are not used to sense or transmit changes in oxygen or carbon dioxide. The aortic bodies located near the arch of the aorta also respond to acute changes in the partial pressure of oxygen, but less well than the carotid body responds to changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. The aortic bodies are responsible for many of the cardiovascular effects of hypoxia.

Central chemoreceptors

Carbon dioxide is one of the most powerful stimulants of breathing. As the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood rises, ventilation increases nearly linearly. Ventilation normally increases by two to four litres per minute with each one millimetre of mercury increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide increases the acidity of the fluid surrounding the cells but also easily passes into cells and thus can make the interior of cells more acid. It is not clear whether the receptors respond to the intracellular or extracellular effects of carbon dioxide or acidity.

Even if both the carotid and aortic bodies are removed, inhaling gases that contain carbon dioxide stimulates breathing. This observation shows that there must be additional receptors that respond to changes in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Current thinking places these receptors near the undersurface (ventral part) of the medulla. However, microscopic examination has not conclusively identified specific chemoreceptor cells in this region. The same areas of the ventral medulla also contain vasomotor neurons that are concerned with the regulation of blood pressure. Some investigators suspect that respiratory responses produced at the ventral medullary surface are direct and are caused by interference with excitatory and inhibitory inputs to respiration from these vasomotor neurons. They further suspect that respiratory chemoreceptors that respond to carbon dioxide are more diffusely distributed in the brain.