Directional mass flow of oceanic water Ocean surface currentsDistinctive white lines trace the flow of surface currents around the world.Visualization showing global ocean currents from January1, 2010, to December31, 2012, at sea level, then at 2,000 m (6,600 ft) below sea levelAnimation of circulation around ice shelves of Antarctica
An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and temperature and salinity differences.[1] Depth contours, shoreline configurations, and interactions with other currents influence a current's direction and strength. Ocean currents move both horizontally, on scales that can span entire oceans, as well as vertically, with vertical currents (upwelling and downwelling) playing an important role in the movement of nutrients and gases, such as carbon dioxide, between the surface and the deep ocean.
Ocean currents are classified by temperature as either warm currents or cold currents. They are also classified by their velocity, dimension, and direction as either drifts, currents, or streams. Drifts, such as the North Atlantic Drift Current, involve the forward movement of surface ocean water under the influence of the prevailing wind. Currents, such as the Labrador Current, involve the movement of oceanic water in a more definite direction at a greater velocity than drifts. Streams, such as the Gulf Stream, involve movement of larger masses of ocean water with greater velocity than drifts or currents.
Ocean currents are patterns of water movement that influence climate zones and weather patterns around the world. They are primarily driven by winds and by seawater density, although many other factors influence them, including the shape and configuration of the oceanic basin they flow through. The two basic types of currents – surface and deep-water currents[2] – help define the character and flow of ocean waters across the planet.
Ocean currents flow for great distances, and together they create the global conveyor belt, which plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many of Earth's regions. More specifically, ocean currents influence the temperature of the regions through which they travel. For example, warm currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature of the area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them. Perhaps the most striking example is the Gulf Stream, which, together with its extension the North Atlantic Drift, makes northwest Europe much more temperate for its high latitude than other areas at the same latitude. Another example is Lima, Peru, whose cooler subtropical climate contrasts with that of its surrounding tropical latitudes because of the Humboldt Current.
The largest ocean current is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), a wind-driven current which flows clockwise uninterrupted around Antarctica. The ACC connects all the oceanic basins together, and also provides a link between the atmosphere and the deep ocean due to the way water upwells and downwells on either side of it.
Causes
[edit]The bathymetry of the Kerguelen Plateau in the Southern Ocean governs the course of the Kerguelen deep western boundary current, part of the global network of ocean currents.[3][4]
Ocean currents are driven by the wind, by the gravitational pull of the Moon in the form of tides, and by the effects of variations in water density.[5] Ocean dynamics define and describe the motion of water within the oceans.
Ocean temperature and motion fields can be separated into three distinct layers: mixed (surface) layer, upper ocean (above the thermocline), and deep ocean. Ocean currents are measured in units of sverdrup (Sv), where 1 Sv is equivalent to a volume flow rate of 1,000,000 m3 (35,000,000 ft3) per second.
There are two main types of currents, surface currents and deep-water currents. Generally surface currents are driven by wind systems and deep-water currents are driven by differences in water density due to variations in water temperature and salinity.[6]
Wind-driven circulation
[edit]
Surface oceanic currents are driven by wind currents, the large scale prevailing winds drive major persistent ocean currents, and seasonal or occasional winds drive currents of similar persistence to the winds that drive them,[7] and the Coriolis effect plays a major role in their development.[8] The Ekman spiral velocity distribution results in the currents flowing at an angle to the driving winds, and they develop typical clockwise spirals in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.[9] In addition, the areas of surface ocean currents move somewhat with the seasons; this is most notable in equatorial currents.
Deep ocean basins generally have a non-symmetric surface current, in that the eastern equator-ward flowing branch is broad and diffuse whereas the pole-ward flowing western boundary current is relatively narrow.
Thermohaline circulation
[edit] Main article: Thermohaline circulation Further information: Deep ocean waterCoupling data collected by NASA/JPL by several different satellite-borne sensors, researchers have been able to "break through" the ocean's surface to detect "Meddies" – super-salty warm-water eddies that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and then sink more than a half-mile underwater in the Atlantic Ocean. The Meddies are shown in red in this scientific figure.
Large scale currents are driven by gradients in water density, which in turn depend on variations in temperature and salinity. This thermohaline circulation is also known as the ocean's conveyor belt. Where significant vertical movement of ocean currents is observed, this is known as upwelling and downwelling. The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content, factors which together determine the density of seawater.
The thermohaline circulation is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes.[10][11] Wind-driven surface currents (such as the Gulf Stream) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high latitudes (forming North Atlantic Deep Water). This dense water then flows into the ocean basins. While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean, the oldest waters (with a transit time of around 1000 years)[12] upwell in the North Pacific.[13] Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins, reducing differences between them and making the Earth's oceans a global system. On their journey, the water masses transport both energy (in the form of heat) and matter (solids, dissolved substances and gases) around the globe. As such, the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth. The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor belt. On occasion, it is imprecisely used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation, (MOC).
Since the 2000s an international program called Argo has been mapping the temperature and salinity structure of the ocean with a fleet of automated platforms that float with the ocean currents. The information gathered will help explain the role the oceans play in the Earth's climate.[14]
Effects on climate and ecology
[edit]
Ocean currents affect temperatures throughout the world. For example, the ocean current that brings warm water up the north Atlantic to northwest Europe also cumulatively and slowly blocks ice from forming along the seashores, which would also block ships from entering and exiting inland waterways and seaports, hence ocean currents play a decisive role in influencing the climates of regions through which they flow.[15] Ocean currents are important in the study of marine debris.[16][17]
Plankton are dispersed by ocean currents.
Upwellings and cold ocean water currents flowing from polar and sub-polar regions bring in nutrients that support plankton growth, which are crucial prey items for several key species in marine ecosystems.[18]
Ocean currents are also important in the dispersal and distribution of many organisms, including those with pelagic egg or larval stages.[19] An example is the life-cycle of the European Eel. Terrestrial species, for example tortoises and lizards, can be carried on floating debris by currents to colonise new terrestrial areas and islands.[19]
Ocean currents and climate change
[edit]
The continued rise of atmospheric temperatures is anticipated to have various effects on the strength of surface ocean currents, wind-driven circulation and dispersal patterns.[20][21][22] Ocean currents play a significant role in influencing climate, and shifts in climate in turn impact ocean currents.[21]
Human-induced climate change is leading to long-term alterations in ocean and atmospheric circulation. The accumulation of greenhouse gases traps extra heat within the Earth's system, causing both the atmosphere and oceans to warm. Notably, over 90% of this trapped heat is absorbed by the oceans. There are signs that crucial circulation patterns are shifting, with growing evidence suggesting that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation may be slowing down.
Over the last century, reconstructed sea surface temperature data reveal that western boundary currents are heating at double the rate of the global average.[23] These observations indicate that the western boundary currents are likely intensifying due to this change in temperature, and may continue to grow stronger in the near future.[21] There is evidence that surface warming due to anthropogenic climate change has accelerated upper ocean currents in 77% of the global ocean.[22] Specifically, increased vertical stratification due to surface warming intensifies upper ocean currents, while changes in horizontal density gradients caused by differential warming across different ocean regions results in the acceleration of surface zonal currents.[22]
There are suggestions that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is in danger of collapsing due to climate change, which would have extreme impacts on the climate of northern Europe and more widely,[24][25][26] although this topic is controversial and remains an active area of research.[27][28][29] The "State of the cryosphere" report, dedicates significant space to AMOC, saying it may be en route to collapse because of ice melt and water warming. In the same time, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is also slowing down and is expected to lose 20% of its power by the year 2050, "with widespread impacts on ocean circulation and climate".[30] UNESCO mentions that the report in the first time "notes a growing scientific consensus that melting Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, among other factors, may be slowing important ocean currents at both poles, with potentially dire consequences for a much colder northern Europe and greater sea-level rise along the U.S. East Coast."[31]
In addition to water surface temperatures, the wind systems are a crucial determinant of ocean currents.[32] Wind wave systems influence oceanic heat exchange, the condition of the sea surface, and can alter ocean currents.[33] In the North Atlantic, equatorial Pacific, and Southern Ocean, increased wind speeds as well as significant wave heights have been attributed to climate change and natural processes combined.[33] In the East Australian Current, global warming has also been accredited to increased wind stress curl, which intensifies these currents, and may even indirectly increase sea levels, due to the additional warming created by stronger currents.[34]
As ocean circulation changes due to climate, typical distribution patterns are also changing. The dispersal patterns of marine organisms depend on oceanographic conditions, which as a result, influence the biological composition of oceans.[20] Due to the patchiness of the natural ecological world, dispersal is a species survival mechanism for various organisms.[35] With strengthened boundary currents moving toward the poles, it is expected that some marine species will be redirected to the poles and greater depths.[20][36] The strengthening or weakening of typical dispersal pathways by increased temperatures are expected to not only impact the survival of native marine species due to inability to replenish their meta populations but also may increase the prevalence of invasive species.[20] In Japanese corals and macroalgae, the unusual dispersal pattern of organisms toward the poles may destabilize native species.[37]
Economic importance
[edit]
Knowledge of surface ocean currents is essential in reducing costs of shipping, since traveling with them reduces fuel costs. In the wind powered sailing-ship era, knowledge of wind patterns and ocean currents was even more essential. Using ocean currents to help their ships into harbor and using currents such as the gulf stream to get back home.[38] The lack of understanding of ocean currents during that time period is hypothesized to be one of the contributing factors to exploration failure. The Gulf Stream and the Canary current keep western European countries warmer and less variable, while at the same latitude North America's weather was colder.[39] A good example of this is the Agulhas Current (down along eastern Africa), which long prevented sailors from reaching India.
In recent times, around-the-world sailing competitors make good use of surface currents to build and maintain speed. Ocean currents can also be used for marine power generation, with areas of Japan, Florida and Hawaii being considered for test projects. The utilization of currents today can still impact global trade, it can reduce the cost and emissions of shipping vessels.[40]
Skipjack tuna fishery in Indonesia.
Ocean currents can also impact the fishing industry, examples of this include the Tsugaru, Oyashio and Kuroshio currents all of which influence the western North Pacific temperature, which has been shown to be a habitat predictor for the Skipjack tuna.[41] It has also been shown that it is not just local currents that can affect a country's economy, but neighboring currents can influence the viability of local fishing industries.[42]
Distribution
[edit]A 1943 map of the world's ocean currents
Currents of the Arctic Ocean
Baffin Island Current – Arctic Ocean current
Beaufort Gyre – Wind-driven ocean current in the Arctic Ocean polar region
East Greenland Current – Current from Fram Strait to Cape Farewell off the eastern coat of Greenland
East Iceland Current – Cold water ocean current that forms as a branch of the East Greenland Current
Labrador Current – Western North Atlantic Ocean current
North Icelandic Jet – Deep-reaching current that flows along the continental slope of Iceland
Norwegian Current – Current that flows northeasterly along the Atlantic coast of Norway
Transpolar Drift Stream – Current in the Arctic Ocean
West Greenland Current – Weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland
West Spitsbergen Current – Warm, salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen
Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
A recording current meter. It records information about currents (speed, direction, depth, temperature).
Angola Current – Temporary ocean surface current
Antilles Current – Ocean current
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation – System of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean
Azores Current – Ocean current in the North Atlantic Ocean
Benguela Current – Ocean current in the South Atlantic
Brazil Current – Water current along Brazil's southern coast
Canary Current – Wind-driven surface current that is part of the North Atlantic Gyre
Cape Horn Current – Cold water current that flows west-to-east around Cape Horn
Caribbean Current – Atlantic Ocean current
East Greenland Current – Current from Fram Strait to Cape Farewell off the eastern coat of Greenland
East Iceland Current – Cold water ocean current that forms as a branch of the East Greenland Current
Equatorial Counter Current – Shallow eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans
Falkland Current – Northward cold water Atlantic Ocean current
Florida Current – Thermal ocean current
Guinea Current – Atlantic warm-water current off West Africa
Gulf Stream – Warm Atlantic Ocean current
Irminger Current
Labrador Current – Western North Atlantic Ocean current
Lomonosov Current – Deep current in the Atlantic Ocean. from the coast of Brazil to the Gulf of Guinea
Loop Current – Ocean current between Cuba and Yucatán Peninsula
North Atlantic Current – Current of the Atlantic Ocean
North Brazil Current – North Atlantic ocean current
North Equatorial Current – Current in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans
Norwegian Current – Current that flows northeasterly along the Atlantic coast of Norway
Portugal Current – Weak ocean current that flows south along the coast of Portugal
South Atlantic Current – Eastward ocean current, fed by the Brazil Current
South Equatorial Current – Ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean
West Greenland Current – Weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland
West Spitsbergen Current – Warm, salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen
Currents of the Indian Ocean
Agulhas Current – Southwest Indian Ocean current off Africa's east coast
Agulhas Return Current – Ocean current in the southern Indian Ocean
East Madagascar Current – Oceanic flow feature near Madagascar
Equatorial Counter Current – Shallow eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans
Indian Monsoon Current – Seasonally-varying ocean current regime in the northern Indian Ocean
Indonesian Throughflow – Ocean current
Leeuwin Current – Ocean current off Western Australia
Madagascar Current – Ocean current in the West Indian Ocean
Mozambique Current – Warm ocean current in the Indian Ocean
North Madagascar Current – Ocean current near Madagascar that flows into the South Equatorial Current
Somali Current – Boundary current in the Indian Ocean
South Equatorial Current – Ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean
Southwest Madagascar Coastal Current – Warm poleward ocean current flowing in the south-west of Madagascar
West Australian Current – Cool oceanic current
Currents of the Pacific Ocean
Alaska Current – Warm-water current west of North America
Aleutian Current – Eastward-flowing ocean current which lies north of the North Pacific Current;
California Current – Pacific Ocean current
Cape Horn Current – Cold water current that flows west-to-east around Cape Horn
Cromwell Current – Eastward-flowing subsurface current that extends along the equator in the Pacific Ocean
Davidson Current – Countercurrent of the Pacific Ocean
East Australian Current – Currents of the Pacific Ocean
East Korea Warm Current – Ocean current in the Sea of Japan
Equatorial Counter Current – Shallow eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans
Humboldt Current – Current of the Pacific Ocean
Indonesian Throughflow – Ocean current
Kamchatka Current – Pacific Ocean current
Kuroshio Current – North-flowing current in the northwest Pacific Ocean
Mindanao Current – Narrow, southward-flowing ocean current along the southeastern coast of the Philippines
Mindanao Eddy – Semi-permanent cold-ring ocean eddy near the Philippines
North Equatorial Current – Current in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans
North Korea Cold Current – Cold water current in the Sea of Japan
North Pacific Current – Ocean current, Japan to British Columbia
Oyashio Current – Cold subarctic ocean current in the Pacific Ocean
South Equatorial Current – Ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean
Subtropical Countercurrent – Narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean
Tasman Front – Pacific Ocean current
Tasman Outflow – Deepwater current that flows from the Pacific Ocean past Tasmania into the Indian Ocean
Currents of the Southern Ocean
Antarctic Circumpolar Current – Ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica
Tasman Outflow – Deepwater current that flows from the Pacific Ocean past Tasmania into the Indian Ocean
Kerguelen deep western boundary current[3][4]
Oceanic gyres
Beaufort Gyre – Wind-driven ocean current in the Arctic Ocean polar region
Indian Ocean Gyre – Major oceanic gyre in the Indian Ocean
North Atlantic Gyre – Major circular system of ocean currents
North Pacific Gyre – Major circulating system of ocean currents
Ross Gyre – Circulating system of ocean currents in the Ross Sea
South Atlantic Gyre – Subtropical gyre in the south Atlantic Ocean
South Pacific Gyre – Major circulating system of ocean currents
Weddell Gyre – One of two gyres within the Southern Ocean
See also
[edit]
Oceans portal
Currentology – Science that studies the internal movements of water masses
Deep ocean water – Cold, salty water deep below the surface of Earth's oceans
Fish migration – Movement of fishes from one part of a water body to another on a regular basis
Geostrophic current – Oceanic flow in which the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis effect
Latitude of the Gulf Stream and the Gulf Stream north wall index
List of ocean circulation models
Marine habitats § Ocean currents
Marine current power – Extraction of power from ocean currents
Ocean gyre – Any large system of circulating ocean surface currents
Physical oceanography – Study of physical conditions and processes within the ocean
Subsurface ocean current – Oceanic currents that flow beneath surface currents
Thermohaline circulation – Part of large-scale ocean circulation
Tidal current – Flow of water induced by astronomical gravitational effects
Volta do mar – Archaic navigational technique
References
[edit]
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^Rahmstorf, S (2003). "The concept of the thermohaline circulation" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6924): 699. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..699R. doi:10.1038/421699a. PMID 12610602. S2CID 4414604.
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^"What Is the Gulf Stream? | NOAA SciJinks – All About Weather". scijinks.gov. Retrieved 2024-04-15.
^National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1 April 2020). "Ocean pollution and marine debris". www.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2024-09-08.
^van Sebille, Erik; Aliani, Stefano; Law, Kara Lavender; Maximenko, Nikolai; Alsina, José M; Bagaev, Andrei; Bergmann, Melanie; Chapron, Bertrand; Chubarenko, Irina; Cózar, Andrés; Delandmeter, Philippe; Egger, Matthias; Fox-Kemper, Baylor; Garaba, Shungudzemwoyo P; Goddijn-Murphy, Lonneke (2020-02-01). "The physical oceanography of the transport of floating marine debris". Environmental Research Letters. 15 (2): 023003. Bibcode:2020ERL....15b3003V. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab6d7d. hdl:2117/187082. ISSN 1748-9326.
^Royce, William F., ed. (1996). "Circulation". Introduction to the Practice of Fishery Science. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-600952-1.x5000-2. ISBN 978-0-12-600952-1.
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^Boulton, Chris A.; Allison, Lesley C.; Lenton, Timothy M. (2014-12-08). "Early warning signals of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation collapse in a fully coupled climate model". Nature Communications. 5 (1): 5752. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.5752B. doi:10.1038/ncomms6752. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 4268699. PMID 25482065.
^Science Media Centre (25 July 2023). "Expert reaction to paper warning of a collapse of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation". Science Media Centre. Retrieved 2024-09-12.
^Rahmstorf, Stefan (10 April 2024). "Is the Atlantic Overturning Circulation Approaching a Tipping Point?". Oceanography. 37 (3): 1–0. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2024.501.
^Met Office Press (2 May 2024). "The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation in a changing climate". Official blog of the Met Office news team. Retrieved 2024-09-12.
^State of the Cryosphere 2024 Lost Ice, Global Damage(PDF). International Cryosphere Climate Initiative. November 2024. pp. x (in the beginning), 8, 48, 52. Retrieved 20 November 2024.
^"State of the Cryosphere Report 2024 Lost Ice, Global Damage". UNESCO. Retrieved 20 November 2024.
^ abDobrynin, Mikhail; Murawski, Jens; Baehr, Johanna; Ilyina, Tatiana (2015-02-15). "Detection and Attribution of Climate Change Signal in Ocean Wind Waves". Journal of Climate. 28 (4): 1578–1591. Bibcode:2015JCli...28.1578D. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00664.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
^Cai, W.; Shi, G.; Cowan, T.; Bi, D.; Ribbe, J. (2005-12-10). "The response of the Southern Annular Mode, the East Australian Current, and the southern mid-latitude ocean circulation to global warming". Geophysical Research Letters. 32 (23) 2005GL024701. Bibcode:2005GeoRL..3223706C. doi:10.1029/2005GL024701. ISSN 0094-8276.
^Kininmonth, Stuart (2011-04-11). "Dispersal connectivity and reserve selection for marine conservation". Ecological Modelling. 222 (7): 1272–1282. Bibcode:2011EcMod.222.1272K. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.01.012.
^Vergés, Adriana; Steinberg, Peter D.; Hay, Mark E.; Poore, Alistair G. B.; Campbell, Alexandra H.; Ballesteros, Enric; Heck, Kenneth L.; Booth, David J.; Coleman, Melinda A.; Feary, David A.; Figueira, Will; Langlois, Tim; Marzinelli, Ezequiel M.; Mizerek, Toni; Mumby, Peter J. (2014-08-22). "The tropicalization of temperate marine ecosystems: climate-mediated changes in herbivory and community phase shifts". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1789) 20140846. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.0846. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 4100510. PMID 25009065.
^Kumagai, Naoki H.; García Molinos, Jorge; Yamano, Hiroya; Takao, Shintaro; Fujii, Masahiko; Yamanaka, Yasuhiro (2018-09-04). "Ocean currents and herbivory drive macroalgae-to-coral community shift under climate warming". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (36): 8990–8995. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.8990K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1716826115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6130349. PMID 30126981.
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^Ramesh, Nandini; Rising, James A.; Oremus, Kimberly L. (2019-06-21). "The small world of global marine fisheries: The cross-boundary consequences of larval dispersal". Science. 364 (6446): 1192–1196. Bibcode:2019Sci...364.1192R. doi:10.1126/science.aav3409. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31221860.
^Talley, Lynne D. (April 1, 1995). "North Pacific Intermediate Water in the Kuroshio/Oyashio Mixed Water Region". American Meteorological Society. 25 (4): 475–501. Bibcode:1995JPO....25..475T. doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1995)025<0475:NPIWIT>2.0.CO;2 – via AMS Publications.
Further reading
[edit]
Hansen, B.; Østerhus, S; Quadfasel, D; Turrell, W (2004). "Already the day after tomorrow?". Science. 305 (5686): 953–954. doi:10.1126/science.1100085. PMID 15310882. S2CID 12968045.
Kerr, Richard A. (2004). "A slowing cog in the North Atlantic ocean's climate machine". Science. 304 (5669): 371–372. doi:10.1126/science.304.5669.371a. PMID 15087513. S2CID 42150417.
Munday, Phillip L.; Jones, Geoffrey P.; Pratchett, Morgan S.; Williams, Ashley J. (2008). "Climate change and the future for coral reef fishes". Fish and Fisheries. 9 (3): 261–285. Bibcode:2008AqFF....9..261M. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2979.2008.00281.x.
Rahmstorf, S. (2003). "Thermohaline circulation: The current climate". Nature. 421 (6924): 699. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..699R. doi:10.1038/421699a. PMID 12610602. S2CID 4414604.
Roemmich, D. (2007). "Physical oceanography: Super spin in the southern seas". Nature. 449 (7158): 34–35. Bibcode:2007Natur.449...34R. doi:10.1038/449034a. PMID 17805284. S2CID 2951110.
External links
[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ocean currents.
Current global map of sea surface currents
v
t
e
Ocean currents and gyres
Currents
Arctic Ocean
East Greenland
North Icelandic
Norwegian
Transpolar Drift Stream
Atlantic Ocean
Angola
Antilles
Azores
Baffin Island
Benguela
Brazil
Canary
Cape Horn
Caribbean
East Greenland
East Iceland
Falkland
Florida
Guinea
Gulf Stream
Irminger
Labrador
Lomonosov
Loop
North Atlantic
North Brazil
North Equatorial
Norwegian
Portugal
South Atlantic
South Equatorial
West Greenland
West Spitsbergen
Indian Ocean
Agulhas
Agulhas Return
East Madagascar
Equatorial Counter
Indian Monsoon
Indonesian Throughflow
Leeuwin
Madagascar
Mozambique
North Madagascar
Somali
South Equatorial
West Australian
Pacific Ocean
Alaska
Aleutian
California
Cromwell
Davidson
East Australian
East Korea Warm
Equatorial Counter
Humboldt
Indonesian Throughflow
Kamchatka
Kuroshio
Mindanao
North Equatorial
North Korea Cold
North Pacific
Oyashio
South Equatorial
Tasman Front
Southern Ocean
Antarctic Circumpolar
Tasman Outflow
Gyres
Major gyres
Indian Ocean Gyre
North Atlantic Gyre
South Atlantic Gyre
North Pacific Gyre
South Pacific Gyre
Other gyres
Beaufort Gyre
Ross Gyre
Weddell Gyre
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Equipment
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Deborah Andollo
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Organisations
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UNGERIN
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Research
Researchers indiving physiologyand medicine
Arthur J. Bachrach
Albert R. Behnke
Peter B. Bennett
Paul Bert
George F. Bond
Robert Boyle
Alf O. Brubakk
Albert A. Bühlmann
John R. Clarke
Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
Kenneth William Donald
William Paul Fife
John Scott Haldane
Robert William Hamilton Jr.
Henry Valence Hempleman
Leonard Erskine Hill
Brian Andrew Hills
Felix Hoppe-Seyler
Christian J. Lambertsen
Simon Mitchell
Charles Momsen
Neal W. Pollock
John Rawlins
Charles Wesley Shilling
Edward D. Thalmann
Jacques Triger
Diving medicalresearchorganisations
Aerospace Medical Association
Divers Alert Network (DAN)
Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
Rubicon Foundation
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Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)
Law
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List of legislation regulating underwater diving
Investigation of diving accidents
Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
History of underwater diving
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History of Diving Museum
History of scuba diving
List of researchers in underwater diving
Lyons Maritime Museum
Man in the Sea Museum
Timeline of atmospheric diving suits
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Pearling in Western Australia
US Navy decompression models and tables
Archeologicalsites
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Queen Anne's Revenge
Whydah Gally
Underwater artand artists
The Diver
Jason deCaires Taylor
Engineersand inventors
Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont
William Beebe
Georges Beuchat
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
Joseph-Martin Cabirol
John R. Clarke
Jacques Cousteau
Charles Anthony Deane
John Deane
Louis de Corlieu
Auguste Denayrouze
Ted Eldred
Henry Fleuss
Émile Gagnan
Karl Heinrich Klingert
Peter Kreeft
Christian J. Lambertsen
Yves Le Prieur
John Lethbridge
Ernest William Moir
Joseph Salim Peress
Auguste Piccard
Joe Savoie
Willard Franklyn Searle
Gordon Smith
Augustus Siebe
Pierre-Marie Touboulic
Jacques Triger
Historicalequipment
Aqua-Lung
RV Calypso
SP-350 Denise
Magnesium torch
Nikonos
Porpoise regulator
Standard diving dress
Sub Marine Explorer
Vintage scuba
Diverpropulsionvehicles
Advanced SEAL Delivery System
Cosmos CE2F series
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R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
SEAL Delivery Vehicle
Shallow Water Combat Submersible
Siluro San Bartolomeo
Welfreighter
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Military andcovert operations
Raid on Alexandria (1941)
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
Scientific projects
1992 cageless shark-diving expedition
Mission 31
Awards and events
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International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame
London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures
NOGI Awards
Women Divers Hall of Fame
Incidents
Dive boat incidents
Sinking of MV Conception
Diver rescues
Alpazat cave rescue
Tham Luang cave rescue
Early diving
John Day (carpenter)
Charles Spalding
Ebenezer Watson
Freediving fatalities
Stephen Keenan
Loïc Leferme
Audrey Mestre
Nicholas Mevoli
Natalia Molchanova
Offshorediving incidents
Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
Drill Master diving accident
Star Canopus diving accident
Stena Seaspread diving accident
Venture One diving accident
Waage Drill II diving accident
Wildrake diving accident
Professionaldiving fatalities
Roger Baldwin
John Bennett
Victor F. Guiel Jr.
Francis P. Hammerberg
Craig M. Hoffman
Peter Henry Michael Holmes
Johnson Sea Link accident
Edwin Clayton Link
Gerard Anthony Prangley
Per Skipnes
Robert John Smyth
Albert D. Stover
Richard A. Walker
Lothar Michael Ward
Joachim Wendler
Bradley Westell
Arne Zetterström
Scuba divingfatalities
1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident
Ricardo Armbruster
Allan Bridge
David Bright
Berry L. Cannon
Cotton Coulson
Cláudio Coutinho
E. Yale Dawson
Deon Dreyer
Milan Dufek
Sheck Exley
Maurice Fargues
Fernando Garfella Palmer
Guy Garman
Steve Irwin
death
Jim Jones
Henry Way Kendall
Artur Kozłowski
Yuri Lipski
Kirsty MacColl
Agnes Milowka
François de Roubaix
Chris and Chrissy Rouse
Dave Shaw
Wesley C. Skiles
Dewey Smith
Rob Stewart
Esbjörn Svensson
Josef Velek
Publications
Manuals
NOAA Diving Manual
U.S. Navy Diving Manual
Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival
Underwater Handbook
Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving
Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving
The new science of skin and scuba diving
Professional Diver's Handbook
Basic Scuba
Standards andCodes of Practice
Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)
DIN 7876
IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving
ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers
General non-fiction
The Darkness Beckons
Goldfinder
The Last Dive
Shadow Divers
The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure
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