Polyvinyl Chloride PVC - British Plastics Federation

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is one of the most widely used polymers in the world. Due to its versatile nature, PVC is used extensively across a broad range of industrial, technical and everyday applications including widespread use in building, transport, packaging, electrical/electronic and healthcare applications. PVC is a very durable and long lasting material which can be used in a variety of applications, either rigid or flexible, white or black and a wide range of colours in between. The first patent for a polymerisation process to manufacture PVC was granted to German inventor Friedrich Klatte in 1913 and PVC has been in commercial production since 1933. The material now accounts for about 20% of all plastic manufactured world-wide, second only to polyethlene.

Contents 1 Production 1.1 Raw Materials 1.2 Bi-Products 2 Physical Properties 2.1 Resistance to Chemicals 3 PVC and Additives 3.1 Functional Additives 3.11 Heat Stablisers 3.12 Lucricants 3.13 Plasticisers 3.2 Optional Additives 4 Benefits of PVC 5 Applications 5.1 Construction 5.2 Healthcare 5.3 Electronics 5.4 Automotive 5.5 Sport 5.6 Coated Fabrics 6 PVC and Sustainability 6.1 Environmental Impacts 6.2 Recycling of PVC 6.23 Examples of Some Current Recycling Schemes for PVC 6.3 Eco-profiles & Life Cycle Assessment 6.4 Total Cost of Ownership Study 6.5 Voluntary Committment to Sustainable Development (VinylPlus) 7 Useful Links 8 Find a Supplier of PVC or Plastic Material 9 Further reading

1 Production

The essential raw materials for PVC are derived from salt and oil. The electrolysis of salt water produces chlorine, which is combined with ethylene (obtained from oil) to form vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). Molecules of VCM are polymerised to form PVC resin, to which appropriate additives are incorporated to make a customised PVC compound .

The PVC production process consists of 5 steps:

• The extraction of salt and hydrocarbon resources
• The production of ethylene and chlorine from these resources
• The combination of chlorine and ethylene to make the vinyl chloride monomer (VCM)
• The polymerisation of VCM to make poly-vinyl-chloride (PVC)
• The blending of PVC polymer with other materials to produce different formulations providing a wide range of physical properties.

Source: www.pvc.org

1.1 Raw Materials

PVC takes less non-renewable fossil fuel to make than any other commodity plastic because unlike other thermoplastics which are entirely derived from oil, PVC is manufactured from two starting materials;

• 57% of the molecular weight derived from common salt
• 43% derived from hyrdocarbon feedstocks (increasingly ethylene from sugar crops is also being used for PVC production as an alternative to ethylene from oil or natural gas)

Whilst PVC is most frequently made from salt and oil, in some regions of the world PVC is made without using oil feedstock at all (substituting oil-derived hydrocarbon with bio-derived hydrocarbon feedstock). PVC is therefore far less oil-dependent than other thermoplastics. It is also highly durable and energy efficient across a range of applications, which makes for an extremely effective use of raw materials.

• There are over 50 quadrillion tonnes of salt exist dissolved in the sea, with over 200billion tonnes of salt available underground - reserves of this material are clearly abundant
• Ethylene from oil equates to 0.3% of annual oil usage, but increasingly etheylene from sugar crops is also being used for PVC production

1.2 Bi-Products Products and bi-products of PVC manufacture include Chlorine and Caustic Soda, two of perhaps the most important manufacturing "ingredients" not only for PVC manufacture, but many other applications. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of life-saving medication, indeed 85% of all pharmaceuticals. Caustic Soda too has many key, everyday applications, including the following applications: pulp and paper manufacture, soap and surfactant manufacture, detergents and cleaners, aluminia extraction, textiles and in the food industry

2 Physical Properties

Type	Product
Tensile Strength	2.60 N/mm²
Notched Impact Strength	2.0 - 45 Kj/m²
Thermal Coefficient of expansion	80 x 10-6
Max Cont Use Temp	60 oC
Density	1.38 g/cm3

2.1 Resistance to Chemicals

Type	Product
Dilute Acid	Very Good
Dilute Alkalis	Very Good
Oils and Greases	Good (variable)
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons	Very Good
Aromatic Hydrocarbons	Poor
Halogenated Hydrocarbons	Moderate (variable)
Alcohols	Good (variable)

3 PVC and Additives

Before PVC can be made into products, it has to be combined with a range of special additives. These additives can influence or determine a number of the products properties, namely; its mechanical properties, weather fastness, its colour and clarity and indeed whether it is to be used in a flexible application. This process is called compounding.

PVC's compatibility with many different kinds of additives is one of the materials many strengths and is what makes it such a highly versatile polymer. PVC can be plasticised to make it flexible for use in flooring and medical products. Rigid PVC, also known as PVC-U (The U stands for "unplasticised") is used extensively in building applications such as window frames.

The functional additives used in all PVC materials include heat stabilisers, lubricants, and in the case of flexible PVC, plasticisers. Optional additives, include a range of substances from processing aids, impact modifiers, thermal modifiers, UV stabilisers, flame retardants, mineral fillers, pigments, to biocides, and blowing agents for specific applications. The actual PVC polymer content in some flooring applications can be as low as 25% by mass, the remainder accounted for by additives. Its compatibility with additives allows for the possible addition of flame retardants although PVC is intrinsically fire retardant because of the presence of chlorine in the polymer matrix.

3.1 Functional Additives

3.11 Heat stabilisers Heat stabilisers are necessary in all PVC formulations to prevent the decomposition of the PVC by heat and shear during processing. They can also enhance the PVC's resistance to daylight, and to weathering and heat ageing. In addition heat stabilisers have an important influence on the physical properties of the PVC and the cost of the formulation. The choice of heat stabiliser depends on a number of factors including the technical requirements of the PVC product, regulatory approval requirements and cost.

3.12 Lubricants These are used to reduce friction during processing. External lubricants can reduce friction between the PVC and the processing equipment, whereas internal lubricants work on the PVC granules.

3.13 Plasticisers

A plasticiser is a substance which when added to a material, usually a plastic, makes it flexible, resilient and easier to handle. Early examples of plasticisers include water to soften clay and oils to plasticise pitch for waterproofing ancient boats. The selection of plasticisers depends on the final properties required by the final product, and indeed whether the product is for a flooring application or a medical application. There are more than 300 different types of plasticisers of which about 50-100 are in commercial use. For more information on plasticisers, please see http://www.plasticisers.org/

The most commonly used plasticisers are phthalates which can be divided into two distinct groups with very different applications and classifications; Low Phthalates: Low molecular weight (LMW) phthalates contain eight or less carbon atoms in their chemical backbone. These include, DEHP, DBP, DIBP and BBP. The use of these phthalates in Europe is limited to certain specialised applications. High Phthalates: High molecular weight (HMW) phthalates are those with 7 - 13 carbon atoms in their chemical backbone. These include: DINP, DIDP, DPHP, DIUP and DTDP. HMW phthalates are safely used in many everyday including cables and flooring. Speciality plasticisers, such as adipates, citrates, benzoates and trimeliltates are used where special physical properties are required such as the ability to withstand very low temperatures or where increased flexibility is important. Many of the PVC products we use everyday but tend to take for granted contain phthalate plasticisers. They include everything from lifesaving medical devices such as medical tubing and blood bags, to footwear, electrical cables, packaging, stationery, and toys. In addition, phthalates are used in other non-PVC applications such as paints, rubber products, adhesives and some cosmetics.

3.2 Optional Additives

These optional additives are not strictly necessary for the integrity of the plastic but are used to draw-upon other properties. Optional additives include processing aids, impact modifiers, fillers, nitrile rubbers, pigments and colorants and Flame Retardants.

More can be read about these substances either via Plastipedia or an excellent publication available from the BPF Bookshop, entitled “PVC: Reaching for sustainability” by Dr. Mark Everard.

The BPF has a dedicated Additives Group, as well as a Masterbatch and Technical compounds Group.

4 Benefits of PVC

PVC has excellent electrical insulation properties, making it ideal for cabling applications. Its good impact strength and weatherproof attributes make it ideal for construction products.

• PVC has extensive European food contact and medical approvals
• PVC is easy to process, long lasting, tough and light
• PVC consumes less primary energy during production than any of the other commodity plastics

Source: Software GaBi 4 Database - PE Europe

• With high clarity and excellent organoleptic properties (no transfer of taint to food) it is equally suited for use in short term applications such as specialised packaging.
• PVC has a relatively small carbon footrpint, the below infographic indicates the CO2 impact PVC compared to other products

• PVC windows help to cut energy bills and PVC-based windows account for most BFRC ‘A’ Rated Energy Efficient Windows
• PVC is fully recyclable. Due to its properties it reprocesses well and can be recycled into second (or third life) applications with ease.\

5 Applications

PVC is a versatile material that offers many possible applications, these include; window frames, drainage pipe, water service pipe, medical devices, blood storage bags, cable and wire insulation, resilient flooring, roofing membranes, stationary, automotive interiors and seat coverings, fashion and footwear, packaging, cling film, credit cards, vinyl records, synthetic leather and other coated fabrics.

5.1 Construction

PVC has been used extensively in a wide range of construction products for over half a century. PVC's strong, lightweight, durable and versatile characteristics make it ideal for window profiles. PVC's inherent flame retardant and excellent electrical insulation properties make it ideal for cabling applications.

Typical example of PVC construction products include:

-Window and door profiles, conservatories and atria -Pipes and fittings -Power, data and telecoms wiring and cables -Cable and services ducting -Internal and external cladding -Roofing and ceiling systems and membranes -Rainwater, soil and waste systems -Flooring -Wallcoverings

Unplasticised PVC is one of the stiffest polymers at normal ambient temperature and shows little deterioration after many years in service.

PVC is versitile and can be used for different colours and effects, often being used as an alternative to traditional wood frames as they offer tremendous energy-saving potential at low cost.

The Building Research Establishment (BRE), the UK's leading authority on sustainable construction, has granted PVC-U windows a life-span of more than 35 years however, there are many examples of products lasting much longer than this.

The latest BRE 'Green Guide to Specification', confirms that PVC is one of the best all-round framing materials currently on the market. PVC-U windows, in a domestic setting, score an "A" rating and in the commercial arena, an "A+" rating - the best there is! PVC-U windows are one of the best performing products on the market today.

The British Fenestration Ratings Council (BFRC) also grades materials on their energy effiency, PVC-U frames - compared to the listed Aluminium and Timber options - score many 'A' ratings, marking their superior energy performance.

Coupled together with the variety of colours available (from a variety of manufacturers), the inherant recyclability of PVC, minimal maintenance (regular cleaning required) and their ease of repair, should anything go wrong, PVC-U Windows offer great advantages over competing materials.

Further information on PVC-U windows can be found via our Windows Group homepage, www.bpfwindowsgroup.co.uk.

PVC is also used in pipes and reservoir linings that help the safe and cost-effective provision of drinking water and sanitation. More information can be found at www.bpfpipesgroup.com

Other construction applications: door profiles, pipes and fittings, power, data and telecoms wiring and cables, cable and services ducting, internal and external cladding, conservatories and atria, roofing and ceiling systems and membranes, rainwater, flooring and wallcoverings.

5.2 Healthcare

PVC has been used for hundreds of life-saving and healthcare products for almost 50 years being used in surgery, pharmaceuticals, drug delivery and medical packaging due to its unrivalled performance characteristics and cost-efficiency.

Typical examples of PVC healthcare products include:

• "Artificial skin" in emergency burns treatment • Blood and plasma transfusion sets • Blood vessels for artificial kidneys • Catheters and cannulae • Blood bags •Containers for intravenous solution giving sets •Container for urine continence and ostomy products •Endotracheal tubing •Inflatable splints •Surgical and examination gloves •Shatter-proof bottles and jars •Overshoes •Protective sheeting and tailored covers •Mattress and bedding covers • Wall and floor coverings • Blister and dosage packs for pharmaceuticals and medicines

Flexible PVC is used to make blood storage bags, and in fact is the only material approved by the European Pharmacopoeia for this purpose. The nature of the material means that blood can be stored safely for longer.

PVC packaging is also widely used in the packaging of pharmaceutical products.

Other examples of PVC healthcare products: "Artificial skin" in emergency burns treatment, blood and plasma transfusion sets, blood vessels for artificial kidneys, catheters, blood bags, containers for intravenous solution giving sets, container for urine continence and ostomy products, endotracheal tubing, feeding and pressure monitoring tubing, inhalation masks, surgical and examination gloves, shatter-proof bottles and jars, mattress and bedding covers and blister and dosage packs for pharmaceuticals and medicines.

5.3 Electronics

PVC was first used as cable insulation as a replacement for rubber during the Second World War and continues to be used widely to this day due to its flexibility, ease of handling in installation and inherent flame retardation. PVC cables do not harden and crack over time and find use in many applications from telecommunications to electric blankets.

5.4 Automotive

Typical examples of PVC automotive components include:

• Instrument panels and associated mouldings

• Interior Door Panels and Pockets

• Sun Visors

• Seat Coverings

• Mud Flaps

• Underbody Coating

• Auto Harness Wiring

PVC brings both high performance qualities and important cost benefits to the automotive industry. Independent research by Mavel Consultants has shown that the typical cost of using alternative materials is in a range 20-100% higher per component.

Automotive applications: Instrument panels and associated mouldings, interior door panels and pockets, sun visors, seat coverings, headlining, seals, mud flaps, underbody coating, floor coverings, exterior side moulding and protective strips and anti-stone damage protection.

5.5 Sport

As PVC is a highly versatile construction material with a favourable environmental footprint it is extensively used in the construction of sporting venues. This includes use in seating, roofings, floorings as well as piping and electrical wiring. Some examples of sporting venues using PVC for their roopfing membranes are shown below.

1. Gottlieb Daimler Stadion roof, Stuttgart. Picture: Kind permission of ECVM. 2. Lords Cricket Ground roof. Picture: Kind permission of Base Structures Ltd. 3. Volksparkstadion roof, Hamburg. Picture: Kind permission of ECVM. 4. Cape Town World Cup 2010 Stadium. Picture: Kind permission of Bruce Sutherland, City of Capetown/PVCplus. Background. Stadium seating. Picture: Fotalia.

In addition to use in stadiums and sporting venues, PVC is used extensively by athletes from the clothes and shoes they wear to the equipment they use and the surfaces they compete on.

1 Basketball court. Picture: Tarkett | 2 All weather sailing protection | 3 Inflatable climbing wall. Picture: Courtesy of Akcros Chemicals

Other sporting applications: performance sports surfaces, sports equipment, clothing, protective barriers, matting, wiring and piping infrastructure.

More information on the role of PVC in sport can be found at www.pvcinsport.co.uk

5.6 Coated Fabrics

PVC is widely used in coated fabrics applications, this includes use in emergency shelters to help people at times of disaster.

6 PVC and Sustainability

PVC's contribution is by no means limited to its products. The PVC industry is also setting a unique example in the process of working together as a supply chain in driving forward sustainable development.

There are many definitions of Sustainability and Sustainable Development, but it can best be defined by the three main pillars of sustainability; social, economic and environmental.

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

Economic Sustainability The PVC industry has enduring pre-war origins and employs huge numbers of people worldwide across the supply chain, which is spread between large multinationals and SME's making a significant contributing to the growth of the global economy.

Social Sustainability: Companies offer rewarding, long-term employment opportunities (including training opportunities), with safe working environments and whose products contribute to good quality homes, through energy efficient windows to the safe transportation of drinking water. Generally, PVC products are light-weight to install - thus a potential for fewer accidents, but far from just providing the windows and pipes for your property, cabling, ducting, roofline products are usually PVC.

Environmental Sustainability In terms of environmental sustainability there are common elements in all studies (on PVC and other materials) consistent with reducing human impact on eco-systems: With world population over over 7 Billion and growing we need to conserve scarce resources and we should minimise ‘human’ land-usage in order to protect biodiversity by giving priority to essential uses (e.g. food crops). To achieve this, we need to minimise or eliminate waste by efficient use of materials and increase recycling rates - something that the PVC industry within Europe is committed to.

6.1 Environmental Impacts The environmental impacts of any one material cannot be judged in isolation since the use of alternatives will not be without cost, either financially or to the environment. Materials that compete with PVC are often promoted as a more natural choice, indeed, ‘natural’ does not equate to ‘better’ or ‘more sustainable'. Some competing materials claim environmental and sustainability advantages over PVC – this is usually based either on myths about the environmental impact of PVC or unjustifiably biased opinions about the competing materials.

6.2 Recycling of PVC

The structure and composition of PVC lends itself to being mechanically recycled, with reasonable ease, to produce good quality recycling material. As with most recycling streams, sorting is of the utmost importance to achieve optimal recycling of PVC materials.

Acrosss the world, the PVC industry has invested heavily to develop sophisticated recycling schemes to ensure that large amounts of PVC can be reused in a new generation of advanced energy efficient, sustainable products. This investment has meant that not just prodcution off-cuts are recycled but also products such as doors and PVC-U windows are recycled on a huge global scale. Whilst old windows are recycled, the process is far more complex that off-cuts due to contamination such as building debris (e.g. steel, concrete and sealants) which need to be removed before re-processing.

Case Study: The World's First 100 percent Recycled PVC Windows

6.23 Examples of Some Current Recycling Schemes for PVC

	Recovinyl provides financial incentives to support the collection of PVC waste from non regulated sectors. This European scheme, backed by the British Plastics Federation, aims to ensure a steady supply of post-consumer PVC waste for recycling. For further information, please visit; www.recovinyl.com
	The Recofloor scheme, managed by Axion Consulting Ltd, provides a mechanism for waste vinyl flooring to be collected and recycled. The scheme accepts uplifted vinyl flooring and post-installation off-cuts. The recycled flooring can be used in the manufacture of new flooring or to produce traffic management products such as traffic cones and road sign bases. For further information, please visit, www.recofloor.org/
	RecoMed is a PVC take-back scheme currently being implemented at 7 different NHS hospitals across Britain (as of March 2016). The scheme involves the collection of used PVC medical devices including IV solution bags; nasal cannulas; oxygen tubes; anaesthetic masks and oxygen masks. With around 1500 hospitals in the UK, estimates put the total tonnage of PVC waste at over 2,000 tonnes per annum.

6.3 Eco-profiles & Life Cycle Assessment

On behalf of the European Commission, and as part of a full review of PVC, PE Europe Consulting Group together with the University of Stuttgart undertook a Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of Principal Competing Materials. The report, published June 2004, showed PVC products to be comparable to alternatives in their environmental impact. The report can be downloaded from the Europa website.

Eco-profiles provide environmental analysis for a product from 'cradle-to-gate' (as opposed to the 'cradle-to-grave' approach of Life Cycle Assessment). Eco-profiles of PVC were updated in 2006 and can be downloaded from the PlasticsEurope Eco-profiles webpages.

6.4 Total Cost of Ownership Study

In 2011, the European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers (ECVM) commissioned an independent company to undertake a study on the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of PVC products. A Total Cost of Ownership study takes into account all costs associated with a product over its entire life cycle.

The study focussed on three particular applications; windows, flooring and outdoor pipes, utilising data from Germany and Italy (judged to be a fair representation of conditions in north and south European countries).

The study concluds that not only does PVC provide decisive cost advantages due to its low initial purchase price but also in its low cost of ownership throughout the life of the product.

Click here to download the final report

Click here to download the ECVM leaflet

6.5 Voluntary Committment to Sustainable Development (VinylPlus)

Since the 90's , the European PVC Industry has been working hard to embrace its responsibility to the challenge of sustainable development.

The European PVC Industry's ten-year Voluntary Committment to Sustainable Development, know as Vinyl2010, made exceptional progress in waste management, recycling and the responsible use of additives.

Following the conclusion of the Vinyl2010 ten year programme, new targets for sustainable development were launched as part of the successor VinylPlus programme. For more information, please visit www.vinylplus.eu.

In creating VinylPlus, the industry has chosen to work in an open process of extensive stakeholder dialogue, including private companies, NGOs, regulators, politicians and users of PVC.

Five key challenges have been identified as priorities according to The Natural Step system conditions for a sustainable society:

• Controlled loop management of PVC
• Organochlorine emissions (to ensure that persistent organic compounds do not accumulate in nature)
• Sustainable use of additives
• Sustainable energy
• Sustainability awareness

The Natural Step Framework is an internationally recognised method for sustainability planning that integrates the science of sustainability with business decision-making.

7 Useful Links

BPF Vinyls Group	Vinyl2010	VinylPlus	www.pvc.org

For further information on PVC, please visit www.pvcexplained.co.uk

8 Find a Supplier of PVC or Another Material

If you would like to source some PVC, please complete the form below and the BPF will send your enquiry direct to relevant companies in membership. If you do not wish your enquiry to appear in the secure BPF members’ area, please submit your enquiry here instead.

Fill out my online form.

9 Further reading

• 12 Good Reasons to Specify PVC Products
• The Story of Polyvinyl Chloride - 100 Years in the Making!
• RecoMed - PVC Take-Back Scheme
• PVC and Fire
• PVC and Additives
• PVC and Sustainability
• PVC in Sport