Rubber Band - Wikipedia

Short circular highly elastic rubber loop This article is about the common household item. For other uses, see Rubber band (disambiguation). "Elastic band" redirects here. For the band and orchestra, see The Elastic Band. For the first aid bandage, see Elastic bandage.

A rubber band (also known as an elastic, gum band or lacky band) is a loop of rubber, usually ring or oval shaped, and commonly used to hold multiple objects together. The rubber band was patented in England on March 17, 1845, by Stephen Perry.[1][2][3] Most rubber bands are manufactured out of natural rubber as well as for latex free rubber bands or, especially at larger sizes, an elastomer, and are sold in a variety of sizes.

Notable developments in the evolution of rubber bands began in 1923 when William H. Spencer obtained a few Goodyear inner tubes and cut the bands by hand in his basement, where he founded Alliance Rubber Company. Spencer persuaded the Akron Beacon Journal as well as the Tulsa World to try wrapping their newspapers with one of his rubber bands to prevent them from blowing across lawns. He went on to pioneer other new markets for rubber bands such as: agricultural and industrial applications and a myriad of other uses. Spencer obtained a patent on February 19, 1957, for a new "Method for Making Elastic Bands" which produced rubber bands in an Open Ring design.[4]

Manufacturing

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Most rubber, whether it is natural or synthetic, normally arrives at the manufacturing facility in large bales. Rubber bands are made by extruding the rubber into a long tube to provide its general shape. There are a number of different methods that can be applied at this point in the manufacturing process. Originally, and in some instances still today, the rubber tubes will then be placed on mandrels, curing the rubber with heat, and then slicing them across the width of the tube into little bands. This causes the tube to split into multiple sections, creating rubber bands.[5] This is most commonly known as an "off-line" rubber extrusion process.

While other rubber products may use synthetic rubber, most rubber bands are primarily manufactured using natural rubber because of its superior elasticity.[6]

Natural rubber originates from the latex of the rubber tree, which is acquired by tapping into the bark layers of the rubber tree. Rubber trees belong to the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae) and only survive in hot, humid tropical climates near the equator, so the majority of latex is produced in the Southeast Asian countries of Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia.[citation needed] Once the latex has been tapped and is exposed to the air, it begins to harden and become elastic, or rubbery.

Rubber band sizes

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Measuring

[edit]

A rubber band is usually measured in three basic dimensions: the flat length, cut width, and wall thickness. The flat length is the total unstretched length. Perpendicular to the flat length is the cut width. Wall thickness is generally measured using tools such as calipers or pin gauges. The wall thickness determines the band's strength and durability.[7]

If one imagines a rubber band during manufacture, that is, a long tube of rubber on a mandrel, before it is sliced into rubber bands, the band's width is decided by how far apart the slices are cut, and its length by the circumference of the tube.

Size numbers

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A rubber band is assigned an industry-standard number based on its dimensions. The first use of rubber band size numbers can be traced back to the early 20th century. While it is difficult to pinpoint an exact date, the practice of categorizing rubber bands by size allowed to easily select the appropriate rubber band for their specific needs. Standards for the rubber band were established in the United States in 1925 by the Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards and is the first known publication to reference rubber band size.

Generally, rubber bands are numbered from smallest to largest, width first. Thus, rubber bands numbered 8–19 are all 1⁄16 inch wide, with lengths going from 7⁄8 inch to 3+1⁄2 inches. Rubber band numbers 30–35 are for width of 1⁄8 inch, going again from shorter to longer. For even longer bands, the numbering starts over for numbers above 100, again starting at width 1⁄16 inch.

Rubber band sizes

Size	Length (in)	Width (in)	Thickness (in)
10	1+1⁄4	1⁄16	1⁄32
12	1+3⁄4	1⁄16	1⁄32
14	2	1⁄16	1⁄32
31	2+1⁄2	1⁄8	1⁄32
32	3	1⁄8	1⁄32
33	3+1⁄2	1⁄8	1⁄32
61	2	1⁄4	1⁄32
62	2+1⁄2	1⁄4	1⁄32
63	3	1⁄4	1⁄32
64	3+1⁄2	1⁄4	1⁄32
117	7	1⁄16	1⁄32

Thermodynamics

[edit] Main article: Rubber elasticity

Temperature affects the elasticity of a rubber band in an unusual way. Heating causes the rubber band to contract and cooling causes expansion.[8] Stretching a rubber band will cause it to release heat, while releasing it after it has been stretched will make it absorb heat, causing its surroundings to become a little cooler. This effect is due to the higher entropy of the unstressed state, which is more entangled and therefore has more states available. In other words, the ability to convert thermal energy into work while the rubber relaxes is allowed by the higher entropy of the relaxed state.

The result is that a rubber band behaves somewhat like an ideal monatomic gas inasmuch as (to good approximation) that elastic polymers do not store any potential energy in stretched chemical bonds. No elastic work is done to "stretch" molecules when work is done upon these bulk polymers. Instead, all work done to the rubber is "released" (not stored) and appears immediately in the polymer as thermal energy. Conversely, when the polymer does work on the surroundings (such as contracting to lift an object) it converts thermal energy to work in the process and cools in the same manner as an ideal gas, expanding while doing work.

Red rubber bands

[edit] Main article: Royal Mail rubber band

In the UK during 2004, following complaints from the public about postal carriers creating litter by discarding the rubber bands which they used to keep their mail together, the Royal Mail introduced red bands for their workers to use: it was hoped that, as the bands were easier to spot than the traditional brown ones and since only the Royal Mail used them, employees would see (and feel compelled to pick up) any red bands which they had inadvertently dropped. As of 2006, some 342 million red bands were being used per year.[9] The Royal Mail no longer uses red rubber bands as of about 2010. The exact date of the expunging of these is uncertain, presumably as different areas used up old stock at varying rates.[citation needed]

Rubber bands in orthodontics

[edit] Main article: Elastics (orthodontics)

Special rubber bands of medical-grade latex can be used (worn) for orthodontic correction of teeth position together with metal braces or clear aligners to apply additional pressure on the teeth being straightened. These rubber bands are manufactured in different sizes for use in the varying steps of Orthodontic treatment.[10] They are often termed orthodontic elastics.

Ranger bands

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This type of rubber band was popularized by use in the military. Ranger bands are essentially sections of tire inner tubing cut into various sizes. They have the advantage of being versatile, durable, and resistant to weather and abrasion. They are commonly used for lashings, and can also be used for makeshift handle grips, providing a strong high-friction surface with excellent shock absorption.[11]

Identical loops of inner tube are used by cavers and cave divers, and in that context are called snoopy loops by the British caving and cave diving community. When they get lost they are recognizable as a common form of litter.[12]

Snoopy loops are easily cut from discarded car and motorcycle inner tubes using a pair of scissors. A knife cut may leave a notched edge which can lead to tearing. Varying sizes of inner tube are used for different tasks. Uses in caving include sealing cuffs of oversuits and collars of boots against the ingress of water, holding kneepads and elbow pads in place or securing dive lines to small rocks.[13] and have been used for first aid for strapping injured joints tightly in place.[14]

Technical divers use small snoopy loops made from bicycle inner tubes to prevent backup lights clipped to a dive harness from dangling, and larger loops cut from car tubes are used to stow hoses against sling or sidemount cylinders.

The exact origin is unknown and has been subject to much speculation.[15] The practice of using snoopy Loops has been claimed to have originated in Greece and spotted by Cave Diving Group members in the late 1970s. The practice was then propagated in Yorkshire Dales.[15] Another claim is that snoopy loops were named by Dave Morris, a Cave Diving Group caver who noticed how they 'snooped' around boulders. It was considered a ridiculous name at the time.[15] None of these claims are particularly plausible as the use is obvious and is likely to have originated independently in several places at earlier dates.

Elastration

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Main article: Elastration

In animal husbandry, rubber bands are used for docking and castration of livestock. The procedure involves banding the body part with a tight latex (rubber) band to restrict blood flow. As the blood flow diminishes, the cells within the gonads die and dehydrate. The part eventually drops off.

Model use

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Rubber bands have long been one of the methods of powering small free-flight model aircraft, the rubber band being anchored at the rear of the fuselage and connected to the propeller at the front. To 'wind up' the 'engine', the propeller is repeatedly turned, twisting the rubber band. When the propeller has had enough turns, the propeller is released and the model launched, the rubber band then turning the propeller rapidly until it has unwound.

One of the first to use this method was pioneer aerodynamicist George Cayley, who used rubber band-driven motors for powering his small experimental models. These 'rubber motors' have also been used for powering small model boats.

Balls

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A rubber band ball is a sphere of rubber bands made by using a knotted single band as a starting point and then wrapping rubber bands around the center until the desired size is achieved. The ball is usually made from 100% rubber bands, but some instructions call for using a marble,[16] a crumpled piece of paper, or a ping-pong ball[17] as a starting point.[18][19]

Notable rubber band balls

[edit]

The world's largest rubber band ball as of November 19, 2008, was created by Joel Waul of Lauderhill, Florida. He is currently the World Record Holder according to the Guinness World Records.[20] The ball, which previously sat under a tarp in Waul's driveway, weighs 9,032 pounds (4,097 kg), is more than 6 ft 7 in (2.01 m) tall (which implies about a 20.68 feet (6.30 m) circumference), and consists of more than 700,000 rubber bands. It set the world record on November 13, 2008, in Lauderhill, Florida.[21] The ball is now owned by Ripley's Believe It or Not!.[22][23]

Steve Milton of Eugene, Oregon, previously held the record for the biggest rubber band ball beginning in 2006. During the construction of his rubber band ball, he was sponsored by OfficeMax, who sent him rubber bands to use for his ball.[24] His ball was approximately 175,000 rubber bands, 5.479 feet (1.670 m) tall (circumference: 18.996 feet (5.790 m)), and weighed 2,088.14 kilograms (4,603.6 lb). He began building the ball, with help from his family, in November, 2005 and would store the ball in their garage.[25]

Before Steve Milton, the record was held by John Bain of Wilmington, Delaware, beginning in 1998.[26][27][28] In 2003, his ball weighed around 3,120 pounds (1,420 kg), consisting of over 850,000 rubber bands and is 1.52 metres (5 ft 0 in) tall (circumference: 4.6 metres (15 ft)). He put the ball up for auction in 2005,[29] but he and his ball participated in Guinness World Records Day 2006. The bands were donated by two companies: Alliance Rubber and Textrip Ltd./Stretchwell Inc.[19]

The former world record was set in 1978.

Date	Name	Place	Diameter	C	Weight	Bands
Nov 13, 2008	Joel Waul	Lauderhill, Florida	6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)	23 ft (7.0 m)	4.516 t	≈726,500
Nov, 2006	Steve Milton	Eugene, Oregon	5 ft 6 in (1.68 m)	19 ft (5.8 m)	2.3018 t	≈175,000
1998	John Bain	Wilmington, Delaware	4 feet (1.2 m)	12 feet 8 in (3.86 m)	1.004 t	unknown

See also

[edit]

• Hair tie
• Rainbow Loom
• Rubber band gun
• Silly Bandz

References

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1. ^ Loadman, John; James, Francis (2009), The Hancocks of Marlborough: Rubber, Art and the Industrial Revolution – A Family of Inventive Genius, OUP Oxford, p. 89, ISBN 978-0-19-957355-4, archived from the original on 2017-12-12
2. ^ "March 17 – Today in Science History – Scientists born on March 17th, died, and events". todayinsci.com. Archived from the original on 2008-10-28.
3. ^ British Patent 13880/1845, "Specification of the Patent granted to Stephen Perry, of Woodland's-place, St. John's-wood, in the County of Middlesex, Gentleman, and Thomas Barnabas Daft, of Birmingham, Manufacturer, for Improvements in Springs to be applied to Girths, Belts, and Bandages, and Improvements in the Manufacture of Elastic Bands. — Sealed March 17, 1845", "Elastic Bands - 1845 Patent". Archived from the original on 2015-04-23. Retrieved 2014-03-02.
4. ^ "Method for Making Elastic Bands". United States Patent and Trademark Office. Archived from the original on July 13, 2020. Retrieved July 13, 2020.
5. ^ "The Manufacturing Process of Rubber". Sciencing. 14 December 2018. Retrieved July 13, 2020.
6. ^ Woodford, Chris (10 June 2008). "What is Rubber?". Explain That Stuff!. Retrieved July 14, 2020.
7. ^ "Rubber band size chart". www.rubberband.com. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
8. ^ Brown, J. B. (May 1963), "Thermodynamics of a Rubber Band", American Journal of Physics, 31 (5): 397, Bibcode:1963AmJPh..31..397B, doi:10.1119/1.1969535
9. ^ Yeoman, Fran (January 21, 2006). "Posties' red rubber bands stretch public's patience". The Times.
10. ^ "Elastics For Braces: Rubber Bands in Orthodontics". Orthodontics Australia. 2019-12-15. Retrieved 2020-12-13.
11. ^ "Ranger Bands (Rubber Bands on Steroids)". instructables.com. Archived from the original on 2010-06-28.
12. ^ Peter Glanville (1992). "Ten Go Caving In Sutherland". Bristol exploration Club. Archived from the original on 2007-10-08.
13. ^ Martyn Farr. "Snoopy loops". Beyond the Blue. Archived from the original on 2007-06-29.
14. ^ Greg Brock. "04-Aug-01: Hirlatz Hohle". Archived from the original on 2007-09-30.
15. ^ a b c "Why are Snoopy Loops called Snoopyloops?". ukcaving.com. Archived from the original on 2017-10-26. Retrieved 2017-10-25.
16. ^ "How to Make a Rubber Band Ball". Archived from the original on 2017-02-02. Retrieved 2017-01-23.
17. ^ "How to Make a Rubber Band Ball". wikiHow. Archived from the original on 2017-01-23. Retrieved 2017-01-23.
18. ^ "What IS Rubber Bands Ball". Archived from the original on 2017-02-02. Retrieved 2017-01-23.
19. ^ a b "Frequently Asked Questions". Recordball.com. Archived from the original on April 26, 2013. Retrieved 2015-08-18.
20. ^ "Largest Rubber Band Ball. Archived 2017-12-01 at the Wayback Machine". GuinnessWorldRecords.com. Accessed: November 18, 2017.
21. ^ Damien Cave, "In Florida, Fond Farewell for a 5-Ton Ball of Rubber Bands. Archived 2017-12-01 at the Wayback Machine". New York Times (October 29, 2009).
22. ^ "Rubber Band Ball. Archived 2017-12-01 at the Wayback Machine". Ripleys.com (2009). Accessed: November 18, 2017.
23. ^ AP. "Man Makes Rubber Band Ball History. Archived 2017-12-01 at the Wayback Machine". CBSNews.com (October 30, 2009). Accessed: November 18, 2017.
24. ^ O'Brien, Cory. "…Steve Milton has one large rubber band ball? at Didnt You Hear…". Didn'tYouHear.com (November 25, 2006). Archived January 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
25. ^ "Rubber band ball sets record at 4,594 pounds. [1]". NBCNews.com/AP (11/22/2006). Accessed: November 18, 2017.
26. ^ Footman, Tim; ed. (2000/2001). Guinness World Records 2001, p. 252. Mint/Guinness World Records. ISBN 9781892051011/ISBN 9780851121024.
27. ^ Guinness World Records 2005, p. 104.
28. ^ Guinness World Records 2006.
29. ^ Williams, Chris. "Rubber band man comes to Chevy Chase auction. Archived 2017-12-01 at the Wayback Machine". Gazette.net. (Oct. 5, 2005). Accessed: November 18, 2017.

External links

[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rubber band balls, Rubber bands and Elastic.

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History of underwater diving History of decompression research and development History of dive computers History of Diving Museum History of scuba diving List of researchers in underwater diving Lyons Maritime Museum Man in the Sea Museum Timeline of atmospheric diving suits Timeline of diving technology Pearling in Western Australia US Navy decompression models and tables Archeologicalsites SS Commodore USS Monitor Queen Anne's Revenge Whydah Gally Underwater artand artists The Diver Jason deCaires Taylor Engineersand inventors Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont William Beebe Georges Beuchat Giovanni Alfonso Borelli Joseph-Martin Cabirol John R. Clarke Jacques Cousteau Charles Anthony Deane John Deane Louis de Corlieu Auguste Denayrouze Ted Eldred Henry Fleuss Émile Gagnan Karl Heinrich Klingert Peter Kreeft Christian J. Lambertsen Yves Le Prieur John Lethbridge Ernest William Moir Joseph Salim Peress Auguste Piccard Joe Savoie Willard Franklyn Searle Gordon Smith Augustus Siebe Pierre-Marie Touboulic Jacques Triger Historicalequipment Aqua-Lung RV Calypso SP-350 Denise Magnesium torch Nikonos Porpoise regulator Standard diving dress Sub Marine Explorer Vintage scuba Diverpropulsionvehicles Advanced SEAL Delivery System Cosmos CE2F series Dry Combat Submersible Human torpedo Motorised Submersible Canoe Necker Nymph R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle SEAL Delivery Vehicle Shallow Water Combat Submersible Siluro San Bartolomeo Welfreighter Wet Nellie Military andcovert operations Raid on Alexandria (1941) Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior Scientific projects 1992 cageless shark-diving expedition Mission 31 Awards and events Hans Hass Award International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures NOGI Awards Women Divers Hall of Fame Incidents Dive boat incidents Sinking of MV Conception Diver rescues Alpazat cave rescue Tham Luang cave rescue Early diving John Day (carpenter) Charles Spalding Ebenezer Watson Freediving fatalities Stephen Keenan Loïc Leferme Audrey Mestre Nicholas Mevoli Natalia Molchanova Offshorediving incidents Byford Dolphin diving bell accident Drill Master diving accident Star Canopus diving accident Stena Seaspread diving accident Venture One diving accident Waage Drill II diving accident Wildrake diving accident Professionaldiving fatalities Roger Baldwin John Bennett Victor F. Guiel Jr. Francis P. Hammerberg Craig M. Hoffman Peter Henry Michael Holmes Johnson Sea Link accident Edwin Clayton Link Gerard Anthony Prangley Per Skipnes Robert John Smyth Albert D. Stover Richard A. Walker Lothar Michael Ward Joachim Wendler Bradley Westell Arne Zetterström Scuba divingfatalities 1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident Ricardo Armbruster Allan Bridge David Bright Berry L. Cannon Cotton Coulson Cláudio Coutinho E. Yale Dawson Deon Dreyer Milan Dufek Sheck Exley Maurice Fargues Fernando Garfella Palmer Guy Garman Steve Irwin death Jim Jones Henry Way Kendall Artur Kozłowski Yuri Lipski Kirsty MacColl Agnes Milowka François de Roubaix Chris and Chrissy Rouse Dave Shaw Wesley C. Skiles Dewey Smith Rob Stewart Esbjörn Svensson Josef Velek
Publications Manuals NOAA Diving Manual U.S. Navy Diving Manual Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival Underwater Handbook Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving The new science of skin and scuba diving Professional Diver's Handbook Basic Scuba Standards andCodes of Practice Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO) DIN 7876 IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers General non-fiction The Darkness Beckons Goldfinder The Last Dive Shadow Divers The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure Research List of Divers Alert Network publications Dive guides
Training and registration Divertraining Competence and assessment Competency-based learning Refresher training Skill assessment Diver training standard Diving instructor Diving school Occupational diver training Commercial diver training Military diver training Public safety diver training Scientific diver training Recreational diver training Introductory diving ISO training standards Teaching method Muscle memory Overlearning Stress exposure training Skills Combat sidestroke Diver navigation Diver trim Ear clearing Frenzel maneuver Valsalva maneuver Finning techniques Scuba skills Buddy breathing Low impact diving Diamond Reef System Surface-supplied diving skills Underwater searches Recreationalscubacertificationlevels Core diving skills Advanced Open Water Diver Autonomous diver CMAS* scuba diver CMAS** scuba diver Introductory diving Low Impact Diver Master Scuba Diver Open Water Diver Supervised diver Leadership skills Dive leader Divemaster Diving instructor Master Instructor Specialist skills Rescue Diver Solo diver Diver trainingcertificationand registrationorganisations European Underwater Federation (EUF) International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF) International Diving Schools Association (IDSA) International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA) List of diver certification organizations National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Nautical Archaeology Society Recreational diver course referral World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC) Commercial divercertificationauthorities Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS) Commercial diver registration in South Africa Divers Institute of Technology Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Department of Employment and Labour Commercial divingschools Divers Academy International Norwegian diver school Free-divingcertificationagencies AIDA International (AIDA) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Performance Freediving International (PI) Scuba Schools International (SSI) Recreationalscubacertificationagencies American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC) American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI) Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP) British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM) Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS) Global Underwater Explorers (GUE) International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD) International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD) International Life Saving Federation (ILS) Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF) National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE) National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB) Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec) Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID) Sub-Aqua Association (SAA) Scuba Diving International (SDI) Scuba Educators International (SEI) Scuba Schools International (SSI) Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF) United Diving Instructors (UDI) YMCA SCUBA Program Scientific divercertificationauthorities American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS) CMAS Scientific Committee Technical divercertificationagencies American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI) British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Diving Science and Technology (DSAT) Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS) International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD) Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec) Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID) Trimix Scuba Association (TSA) Cavediving Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA) Cave Diving Group (CDG) Global Underwater Explorers (GUE) National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG) National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) Technical Diving International (TDI) Military divertraining centres Defence Diving School Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center Underwater Escape Training Unit Military divertraining courses United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course
Underwater sports Surface snorkeling Finswimming Snorkeling/breath-hold Spearfishing Underwater football Underwater hockey Australia Turkey Underwater rugby Colombia United States Underwater target shooting Breath-hold Aquathlon Apnoea finswimming Freediving Open Circuit Scuba Immersion finswimming Sport diving Underwater cycling Underwater orienteering Underwater photography Rebreather Underwater photography Sports governingorganisations and federations International AIDA International Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques) National AIDA Hellas Australian Underwater Federation British Freediving Association British Octopush Association British Underwater Sports Association Comhairle Fo-Thuinn Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins South African Underwater Sports Federation Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu Underwater Society of America) Competitions 14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship Underwater Hockey World Championships Underwater Orienteering World Championships Underwater Rugby World Championships
Underwater divers Pioneersof diving Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro Aquanaut Mary Bonnin Amelia Behrens-Furniss James F. Cahill Jacques Cousteau Billy Deans Dottie Frazier Trevor Hampton Hans Hass Hannes Keller Dick Rutkowski Teseo Tesei Arne Zetterström Underwaterscientistsarchaeologists andenvironmentalists Michael Arbuthnot Robert Ballard George Bass Mensun Bound Louis Boutan Jeffrey Bozanic Hugh Bradner Cathy Church Eugenie Clark James P. Delgado Sylvia Earle John Christopher Fine George R. Fischer Anders Franzén Honor Frost Fernando Garfella Palmer David Gibbins Graham Jessop Swietenia Puspa Lestari Pilar Luna Robert F. Marx Anna Marguerite McCann Innes McCartney Charles T. Meide Mark M. Newell Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova John Peter Oleson Mendel L. Peterson Richard Pyle Andreas Rechnitzer William R. Royal Margaret Rule Gunter Schöbel Stephanie Schwabe Myriam Seco E. Lee Spence Robert Sténuit Peter Throckmorton Cristina Zenato Scuba recordholders Pascal Bernabé Jim Bowden Mark Ellyatt Sheck Exley Nuno Gomes Claudia Serpieri Krzysztof Starnawski Underwaterfilmmakersand presenters Samir Alhafith David Attenborough Ramón Bravo Jean-Michel Cousteau Richie Kohler Paul Rose Andy Torbet Ivan Tors Andrew Wight James Cameron Underwaterphotographers Doug Allan Tamara Benitez Georges Beuchat Adrian Biddle Jonathan Bird Eric Cheng Neville Coleman Jacques Cousteau John D. Craig Ben Cropp Bernard Delemotte David Doubilet Candice Farmer John Christopher Fine Rodney Fox Ric Frazier Stephen Frink Peter Gimbel Monty Halls Hans Hass Henry Way Kendall Rudie Kuiter Joseph B. MacInnis Luis Marden Agnes Milowka Noel Monkman Pete Oxford Steve Parish Zale Parry Pierre Petit Leni Riefenstahl Peter Scoones Brian Skerry Wesley C. Skiles E. Lee Spence Philippe Tailliez Ron Taylor Valerie Taylor Albert Tillman John Veltri Stan Waterman Michele Westmorland John Ernest Williamson J. Lamar Worzel Underwaterexplorers Caves Graham Balcombe Sheck Exley Martyn Farr Jochen Hasenmayer Jill Heinerth Jarrod Jablonski Brian Kakuk William Hogarth Main Tom Mount Jack Sheppard Bill Stone Reefs Arthur C. Clarke Wrecks Leigh Bishop John Chatterton Clive Cussler Bill Nagle Valerie van Heest Aristotelis Zervoudis Aquanauts Andrew Abercromby Joseph M. Acaba Clayton Anderson Richard R. Arnold Serena Auñón-Chancellor Michael Barratt (astronaut) Robert A. Barth Robert L. Behnken Randolph Bresnik Timothy J. Broderick Justin Brown Berry L. Cannon Scott Carpenter Gregory Chamitoff Steve Chappell Catherine Coleman Robin Cook Craig B. Cooper Fabien Cousteau Philippe Cousteau Timothy Creamer Jonathan Dory Pedro Duque Sylvia Earle Jeanette Epps Sheck Exley Albert Falco Andrew J. Feustel Michael Fincke Satoshi Furukawa Ronald J. Garan Jr. Michael L. Gernhardt Christopher E. Gerty David Gruber Chris Hadfield Jeremy Hansen José M. Hernández John Herrington Paul Hill Akihiko Hoshide Mark Hulsbeck Emma Hwang Norishige Kanai Les Kaufman Scott Kelly Karen Kohanowich Timothy Kopra Dominic Landucci Jon Lindbergh Kjell N. Lindgren Michael López-Alegría Joseph B. MacInnis Sandra Magnus Thomas Marshburn Matthias Maurer K. Megan McArthur Craig McKinley Jessica Meir Simone Melchior Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger Andreas Mogensen Karen Nyberg John D. Olivas Takuya Onishi Luca Parmitano Nicholas Patrick Tim Peake Thomas Pesquet Marc Reagan Garrett Reisman Kathleen Rubins Dick Rutkowski Tara Ruttley David Saint-Jacques Josef Schmid Robert Sheats Dewey Smith Steve Squyres Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper Robert Sténuit Hervé Stevenin Nicole Stott James Talacek Daniel M. Tani Robert Thirsk Bill Todd Mark T. Vande Hei Koichi Wakata Rex J. Walheim Shannon Walker John Morgan Wells Joachim Wendler Douglas H. Wheelock Peggy Whitson Dafydd Williams Jeffrey Williams Sunita Williams Reid Wiseman Kimiya Yui Writers and journalists Michael C. Barnette Victor Berge Philippe Diolé Gary Gentile Bret Gilliam Bob Halstead Hillary Hauser Trevor Jackson Steve Lewis John Mattera Rescuers Craig Challen Richard Harris Rick Stanton John Volanthen Frogmen Lionel Crabb Ian Edward Fraser Sydney Knowles James Joseph Magennis Commercial salvors Keith Jessop
Science of underwater diving List of researchers in underwater diving Divingphysics Metre sea water Neutral buoyancy Underwater acoustics Modulated ultrasound Underwater vision Underwater computer vision Divingphysiology Blood shift Cold shock response Diving reflex Equivalent narcotic depth Maximum operating depth Physiological response to water immersion Thermal balance of the underwater diver Underwater vision Work of breathing Decompressiontheory Decompression models: Bühlmann decompression algorithm Haldane's decompression model Reduced gradient bubble model Thalmann algorithm Thermodynamic model of decompression Varying Permeability Model Equivalent air depth Oxygen window Physiology of decompression Divingenvironments Underwater exploration Deep-sea exploration Classification List of diving environments by type Altitude diving Benign water diving Confined water diving Deep diving Inland diving Inshore diving Muck diving Night diving Open-water diving Black-water diving Blue-water diving Penetration diving Cave diving Torricellian chamber Ice diving Wreck diving Recreational dive sites Underwater environment Underwater diving environment Impact Environmental impact of recreational diving Low impact diving
Other Bathysphere Defense against swimmer incursions Diver detection sonar Offshore survey Rugged compact camera Underwater domain awareness Underwater vehicle Deep-submergencevehicle Aluminaut DSV Alvin American submarine NR-1 Bathyscaphe Archimède FNRS-2 FNRS-3 Harmony class bathyscaphe Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe Trieste II Deepsea Challenger Ictineu 3 JAGO Jiaolong Konsul-class submersible Limiting Factor Russian submarine Losharik Mir Nautile Pisces-class deep submergence vehicle DSV Sea Cliff DSV Shinkai DSV Shinkai 2000 DSV Shinkai 6500 DSV Turtle DSV-5 Nemo Submarine rescue International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy) McCann Rescue Chamber Submarine rescue ship Deep-submergencerescue vehicle LR5 LR7 MSM-1 Mystic-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle DSRV-1 Mystic DSRV-2 Avalon NATO Submarine Rescue System Priz-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28 Russian submarine AS-34 ASRV Remora SRV-300 Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System Type 7103 DSRV URF (Swedish Navy) Submarine escape Escape trunk Submarine escape training facility Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia) Escape set Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus Momsen lung Steinke hood Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment Specialinterestgroups Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia CMAS Europe Coral Reef Alliance Divers Alert Network Green Fins Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association Karst Underwater Research Nautical Archaeology Program Nautical Archaeology Society Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club PADI AWARE Reef Check Reef Life Survey Rubicon Foundation Save Ontario Shipwrecks SeaKeys Sea Research Society Society for Underwater Historical Research Society for Underwater Technology Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command Neutral buoyancyfacilities forAstronaut training Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory Neutral buoyancy pool Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid Neutral Buoyancy Simulator Space Systems Laboratory Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center Other Nautilus Productions Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device Scuba diving therapy Seabed mining
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