Vegetable Oil - Wikipedia

Oil extracted from seeds or from other parts of plants For other uses, see Vegetable oil (disambiguation).

Plant oils
Olive oil
Types
Vegetable oil (list) Macerated oil (list) Essential oil (list)
Uses
Drying oil Oil paint Cooking oil Fuel Biodiesel
Components
Saturated fat Monounsaturated fat Polyunsaturated fat Trans fat
v t e

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of edible plants. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides.[1] Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature.[2][3] Vegetable oils are usually edible.

History

[edit]

In antiquity

[edit]

Olive oil has been a part of human culture for millennia.[4] Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC[4] and 4500 BC in present-day Israel.[5] Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in Jericho, but cites no source.[citation needed] In ancient Egypt, plant oils including cedar oil, cypress oil, and olive oil were used during the mummification process.[6]

Vegetable oils have been used as lighting fuel for lamps, cooking, medicine and lubrication.[citation needed] Palm oil has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. It became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution.[7]

Modern history

[edit]

Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight", and B. J. Johnson Company's (now Colgate-Palmolive) "Palmolive,"[8] and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries.[9]

In 1780, Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later, Michel Eugène Chevreul deduced that these fats were esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Wilhelm Normann, a German chemist, introduced the hydrogenation of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as trans fats, leading to the development of the global production of margarine and vegetable shortening.[citation needed]

In the United States, cottonseed oil was developed and marketed by Procter & Gamble as a creamed shortening – Crisco – as early as 1911.[10] Ginning mills were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially hydrogenated to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid.[citation needed]

Soybeans are protein-rich, and the medium-viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. Henry Ford established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car "almost entirely" out of soybeans.[11] Roger Drackett had a successful new product with Windex. He invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment.[12] By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become the most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to palm oil. In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including China (16.6 MT), US (10.9 MT), Argentina (8.4 MT), Brazil (8.2 MT), and EU (3.2 MT).[13]

The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of vegetable oil as a fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. Rudolf Diesel designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers who had a source of fuel readily available. Diesel's first engine ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but peanut oil. In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day".[14] The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937.[15] Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, biodiesel, produced from oils or fats using transesterification is more widely used. Led by Brazil, many countries built biodiesel plants during the 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common biofuel in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles.[16]

In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil low acid"). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved use of the canola name in January 1985,[17] and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.[citation needed]

The production of vegetable oils went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by a sharp increase in palm oil.[18]

Uses

[edit]

Culinary

[edit] See also: Cooking oil

Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, and schmaltz. The oils serve several purposes in this role:

• Shortening – as in giving pastries a crumbly texture.
• Enriching – adding calories and satisfaction in consumption
• Texture – altering how ingredients combine, especially fats and starches
• Flavoring – examples include olive, sesame, or almond oil
• Flavor base – oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, such as peppers,[19] since many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.

Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, 100 °C (212 °F), and used to fry foods. Oils for this purpose must have a high flash point. Such oils include both the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. – and tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran. The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.

Industrial

[edit]

Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.[citation needed]

Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes, and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as drying oils, and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in alkyd resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as insulators as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by Fischer esterification. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable hydraulic fluid[20] and lubricant.[21]

One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming rancid. Oils that are more stable, such as ben oil or mineral oil, are thus preferred for industrial uses. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses, owing to the presence of a hydroxyl group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to Nylon 11. Castor oil may also be reacted with epichlorohydrin to make a glycidyl ether, which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with epoxy resins.[citation needed]

Pet food additive

[edit]

Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO[22] defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.[citation needed]

Fuel

[edit] Main article: Vegetable oil fuel

Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel.[23] Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles but straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity. The use of vegetable oils as alternative energy is growing[citation needed] and the availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing.[citation needed]

The NNFCC estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%.[24]

Production

[edit] Main article: Edible oil refining

The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.[citation needed]

Mechanical extraction

[edit]

Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing". This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut, etc.), and it is preferred by most health-food customers in the United States and in Europe.[citation needed] There are several different types of mechanical extraction.[25] Expeller pressing extraction is common, though the screw press, ram press, and ghani (powered mortar and pestle) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India.[26] The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India:[27]

Method	Percentage extracted
Ghani[28]	20–30%
Expellers	34–37%
Solvent	40–43%

Solvent extraction

[edit]

The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils.[citation needed] After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about 149 °C (300 °F).[29]

Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.[30]

Hydrogenation

[edit] Main article: Fat hydrogenation

Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as vegetable shortening, will remain solid at room temperature.

Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in a near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a saturated fat, has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a polyunsaturated oil is left incompletely hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it is a "partially hydrogenated oil" (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase.

While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to unsaturated trans fatty acids in the oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from coronary heart disease,[31] among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food.[32]

Deodorization

[edit]

In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point or to about 232 °C (450 °F),[33] and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water is immediately converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals that are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through a deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil's natural compounds.[34][35][36]

Occupational exposure

[edit]

People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for vegetable oil mist exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday.[37]

Yield

[edit]

Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in tons (t) of oil produced per hectare (ha) of land per year (yr). Oil palm is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year.

Crop	Yield (t/ha/yr)
Palm oil[38]	4.0
Coconut oil[39]	1.4
Canola oil[40]	0.75
Soybean oil[40]	0.45
Sunflower oil[39]	0.6

Particular oils

[edit] For a more comprehensive list, see List of vegetable oils.

The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as SVO or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was:[41]

Oil source	World consumption(million metric tons)	Notes
Palm	41.31	The most widely produced tropical oil, also used to make biofuel
Soybean	41.28	One of the most widely consumed cooking oils
Rapeseed	18.24	One of the most widely used cooking oils, also used as fuel. Canola is a variety (cultivar) of rapeseed.
Sunflower seed	9.91	A common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel
Cottonseed	4.99	A major food oil, often used in industrial food processing
Palm kernel	4.85	From the seed of the African palm tree
Peanut	4.82	Mild-flavored cooking oil
Coconut	3.48	Used in cooking, cosmetics and soaps
Olive	2.84	Used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps

These figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars, which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher viscosity.[citation needed]

Other significant oils include:

• Corn oil, one of the most common cooking oils, is used for cooking oil, salad dressing, margarine, mayonnaise, prepared goods like spaghetti sauce and baking mixes, and to fry prepared foods like potato chips and French fries.
• Grape seed oil, used in cooking and cosmetics
• Hazelnut oil and other nut oils
• Linseed oil, from flax seeds
• Rice bran oil, from rice grains
• Safflower oil, a flavorless and colorless cooking oil
• Sesame oil, used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India
• Açaí palm oil, used in culinary and cosmetics
• Jambú oil, is extracted from the flowers, leaves and stem from jambu (Acmella oleracea), contains spilanthol
• Graviola oil, derived from Annona muricata
• Tucumã oil, from Astrocaryum aculeatum is used to manufacture soap.
• Brazil nut oil, culinary and cosmetics use
• Carapa oil, pharmaceutical use and anti-mosquito candle
• Buriti oil, from Mauritia flexuosa, used in cosmetics (skin and hair care)
• Passion fruit oil, derived from Passiflora edulis, has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food.
• Pracaxi oil, obtained from Pentaclethra macroloba, cosmetics use
• Solanium oil, derived from chloroplasts, various applications in cooking

Composition of fats

[edit] Properties of vegetable oils[42] The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.

Type	Processingtreatment[43]	Saturatedfatty acids	Monounsaturatedfatty acids		Polyunsaturatedfatty acids				Smoke point
			Total[42]	Oleicacid(ω−9)	Total[42]	α-Linolenicacid(ω−3)	Linoleicacid(ω−6)	ω−6:3ratio
Avocado[44]	11.6	70.6	67.9	13.5	1	12.5	12.5:1	250 °C (482 °F)[45]
Brazil nut[46]	24.8	32.7	31.3	42.0	0.1	41.9	419:1	208 °C (406 °F)[47]
Canola[48]	7.4	63.3	61.8	28.1	9.1	18.6	2:1	204 °C (400 °F)[49]
Coconut[50]	82.5	6.3	6	1.7	0.019	1.68	88:1	175 °C (347 °F)[47]
Corn[51]	12.9	27.6	27.3	54.7	1	58	58:1	232 °C (450 °F)[49]
Cottonseed[52]	25.9	17.8	19	51.9	1	54	54:1	216 °C (420 °F)[49]
Cottonseed[53]	hydrogenated	93.6	1.5	0.6	0.2	0.3	1.5:1
Flaxseed/linseed[54]	9.0	18.4	18	67.8	53	13	0.2:1	107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed[55]		9.6	16.1	15.8	69.9	0.10	69.6	very high	216 °C (421 °F)
Hemp seed[56]	7.0	9.0	9.0	82.0	22.0	54.0	2.5:1	166 °C (330 °F)[57]
High-oleic safflower oil[58]	7.5	75.2	75.2	12.8	0	12.8	very high	212 °C (414 °F)[47]
Olive (extra virgin)[59]	13.8	73.0	71.3	10.5	0.7	9.8	14:1	193 °C (380 °F)[47]
Palm[60]	49.3	37.0	40	9.3	0.2	9.1	45.5:1	235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[61]	hydrogenated	88.2	5.7	0
Peanut[62]	16.2	57.1	55.4	19.9	0.318	19.6	61.6:1	232 °C (450 °F)[49]
Rice bran oil	25	38.4	38.4	36.6	2.2	34.4[63]	15.6:1	232 °C (450 °F)[64]
Sesame[65]	14.2	39.7	39.3	41.7	0.3	41.3	138:1
Soybean[66]	15.6	22.8	22.6	57.7	7	51	7.3:1	238 °C (460 °F)[49]
Soybean[67]	partially hydrogenated	14.9	43.0	42.5	37.6	2.6	34.9	13.4:1
High-oleic sunflower[68]	8.99	63.4	62.9	20.7	0.16	20.5	128:1	227 °C (440 °F)[49]
Walnut oil[69]	unrefined	9.1	22.8	22.2	63.3	10.4	52.9	5:1	160 °C (320 °F)[70]

Seed oil

[edit] See also: Seed oil misinformation

Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the seed (endosperm) rather than other parts of plants. Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils.

Claims that seed oils are unhealthy are not supported by scientific evidence.[71][72]

Pre-pressing

[edit]

Oils are extracted first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent extraction removes the rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction.

Used oil

[edit] Main article: Yellow grease

A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants.

Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as a direct fuel, as well as in the production of biodiesel, livestock feed, pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals.

Since 2002, an increasing number of European Union countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed.[73]

Shelf life

[edit]

Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of oxidation products, such as peroxides and hydroperoxides, plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life.[74][75]

Product labeling

[edit]

In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product.[76] Also, oils in Canadian food products that have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word "modified" or "hydrogenated" when listed as an ingredient.[77] A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as "vegetable oil" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing "vegetable oil" as an ingredient is not acceptable.[76]

From December 2014, all food products produced in the European Union were legally required to indicate the specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation.[78]

See also

[edit]

• Algaculture
• Cholesterol
• Decorticator
• Deodorizer
• Essential oils
• Fatty acid
• Fatty acid methyl ester
• Food extrusion
• Fragrance oil
• Lipid
• List of macerated oils
• List of vegetable oils
• Neem
• Non-food crops
• Oleochemistry
• Seed oil misinformation
• Soap
• Vernonia oil
• Vegetable oil recycling

References

[edit]

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Sources

[edit]

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.

Further reading

[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vegetable oils.

• Gupta, Monoj K. (2007). Practical guide for vegetable oil processing. AOCS Press, Urbana, Illinois. ISBN 978-1-893997-90-5.
• Jee, Michael, ed. (2002). Oils and Fats Authentication. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, England. ISBN 1-84127-330-9.
• Salunkhe, D.K., Chavan, J.K., Adsule, R.N. and Kadam, S.S. (1992). World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. ISBN 0-442-00112-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

v t e Edible fats and oils
Fats	Pig fats Fatback Lardo Salo Lard Lardon Beef/Mutton fats Dripping Suet Tail fat Tallow Dairy fats Butter Clarified butter Ghee Manteiga-da-terra Niter kibbeh Smen Urfa butter Poultry fats Chicken fat Duck fat Goose fat Schmaltz Other animal fats Blubber Muktuk Whale oil Vegetable fats Borneo tallow Cocoa butter Coconut oil Mango butter Margarine Palm kernel oil Shea butter Vegetable shortening
Oils	Marine oils Cod liver oil Krill oil Seaweed oil Shark liver oil Vegetable oils (List) Fruit oils Avocado oil Olive oil Palm oil Nut oils Almond oil Argan oil Cashew oil Hazelnut oil Macadamia oil Marula oil Mongongo nut oil Pecan oil Pine nut oil Pistachio oil Walnut oil Seed oils Ambadi seed oil Apple seed oil Castor oil Corn oil Cottonseed oil Grape seed oil Hemp oil Linseed (flaxseed) oil Mustard oil Peanut oil Pequi oil Perilla oil Poppyseed oil Pumpkin seed oil Rapeseed (canola) oil Rice bran oil Safflower oil Sesame oil Soybean oil Sunflower oil Tea seed oil Watermelon seed oil
See also Cooking oil Plant oil Essential oil

v t e Palm oil
Oil palms	Attalea A. maripa A. speciosa Elaeis E. guineesis E. oleifera
Diseases andpests	Bagworm moth Basal stem rot (Ganoderma orbiforme) Cadang-cadang disease Little leaf syndrome Oryctes rhinoceros Rhynchophorus palmarum Oil palm bunch moth Tirathaba mundella Tirathaba rufivena Red ring disease (Bursaphelenchus cocophilus)
Components	Mesocarp Palm kernel lauric acid oil Palm oil linoleic acid myristic acid oleic acid palmitic acid stearic acid stearin
Processes	Biodiesel production Fat hydrogenation Fractionation Hydrolysis Milling Saponification Transesterification
Products	Biodiesel by region Neste Bioplastics Cellulosic ethanol Girl Scout Cookies Oleochemicals Vegetable oil cooking fuel
Organisations	Producers Bumitama Agri Cargill Carson Cumberbatch Eagle High Plantations Equatorial Palm Oil Feronia Inc. FGV Holdings IOI Group Kuala Lumpur Kepong Berhad Sime Darby TH Plantations Wilmar International Buyers / processors AAK Neste Unilever Governmental /non-governmental FELCRA Berhad Federal Land Development Authority Indonesia Commodity and Derivatives Exchange Malaysia Derivatives Exchange Malaysian Palm Oil Board Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil
Policies, impactsand debates	Biofuel policy of Malaysia Certified sustainable palm oil Deforestation by continent Southeast Asian haze Environmental impact of biodiesel Food vs. fuel Issues relating to biofuels Social and environmental impact of palm oil Vegetable oils as alternative energy
By country	Colombia Indonesia Malaysia
Category by country

v t e Non-timber forest products
Animal products	Furs Honey pine Wild game
Berries / tree fruit	Banana Bilberry Binukaw Blackberry Blueberry Breadfruit Cocoa bean Coconut Durian Gambooge Huckleberry Jackfruit Juniper berry Lingonberry Raspberry Tamarind Woodland strawberry
Edible plants / roots	Betel Fiddlehead ferns Heart of palm Mahuwa flowers Sago palm queen Sassafras filé powder root beer Saw palmetto Wild ginseng Wild onions Bear garlic Canada onion Crow garlic Twincrest onion Pacific mountain onion Ramps
Mushrooms	Bare-toothed russula Bay bolete Birch bolete Cep Chanterelle Honey mushroom Lingzhi (reishi) Matsutake Morel Oyster mushroom Parasol mushroom Red cap Saffron milk cap Slippery jack Truffle Yellow knight
Nuts spices	Allspice Areca nut Bay leaf Black pepper Brazil nut Cinnamon Clove Hazelnut Malva nut Nutmeg Pine nut Vanilla
Oil waxes	Allanblackia Babassu Bacuri Candlenut Capuacu Carnauba Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus wightiana) Cocoa butter Eucalyptol Eucalyptus Illipe Japan wax Kokum Kombo Kpangnan Kusum Mafura Mahua Mango butter Murumuru Nagkesar Palm (kernel) Phulwara Pilu Pongamia Sal-seed (Shorea robusta) Sandalwood Shea butter Tamanu Tea-seed Tea-tree Tucuma Ucuuba Vateria indica
Resins	Benzoin Birch tar Camphor Creosote Frankincense Gamboge Kauri Lacquer Mastic Myrrh Pine tar Pitch Rosin Turpentine Varnish
Sap / gum / etc.	Birch syrup Chicle chewing gum Coconut sugar Date sugar Fruit syrup Gum arabic Gutta-percha Kino Latex Maple sugar Maple syrup Palm sugar Palm wine akpeteshie ogogoro Rubber Spruce gum
Other	Amadou Bamboo edible musical instruments textiles Birch bark Birch beer Cork Ferns Forage Gambier Moss Natural dyes henna Peat Quinine Rattan Shellac Tanbark tannin Tendu leaves Thatching Vegetable ivory Willow bark
Related	Dehesa (Iberian agroforestry) Forest farming / gardening Honey hunting Indian forest produce Mushroom hunting Naval stores Resin extraction Rubber tapping Wildcrafting
Category Commons

v t e Major industries by economic sector
Primary sector or ′Natural sector′ (raw materials) Biotic Agriculture Arable farming Cereals Legumes Vegetables Fiber crops Oilseeds Sugar Tobacco Permanent crops Apples et al. Berries Citrus Stone fruits Tropical fruit Viticulture Cocoa Coffee Tea Nuts Olives Medicinal plants Spices Horticulture Flowers Seeds Animal husbandry Beef cattle Dairy farming Fur farming Horses Other livestock Pig Wool Poultry Beekeeping Cochineal Shellac Silk Hunting Fur trapping Forestry Silviculture Bamboo Logging Firewood Rattan Tree tapping Frankincense Gum arabic Gutta-percha Maple syrup Mastic Natural rubber Palm sugar, syrup, & wine Pine resin Wild mushrooms Fungiculture Truffles Aquatic Fishing Anchovies Herring Sardines Cod Haddock Pollock Mackerel Shark Swordfish Tuna Crabs Lobsters Sea urchins Squid Whaling Aquaculture Carp Catfish Tilapia Abalone Mussels Oysters Pearls Microalgae Seaweed Both Clams Sea cucumbers Scallops Salmon Shrimp Geological Fossil fuels Coal Peat Natural gas Oil shale Petroleum Tar sands Mining of ores Aluminum Copper Iron Gold Silver Palladium Platinum Lithium Rare-earth metals Uranium Other minerals Gemstones Phosphorus Potash Salt Sulfur Quarrying Gravel Sand Chalk Clay Gypsum Limestone Dimension stone Granite Marble
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Tertiary sector or ′Service sector′ (services) Sales Retail Car dealership Consumer goods General store Grocery store Department store Mail order E-commerce Online shopping Specialty store Wholesale Auction Brokerage Distribution Transport & Storage Cargo Air cargo Intermodal Mail Moving company Rail Trucking Passenger transport Airlines Car rentals Passenger rail Ridesharing Taxis Warehousing Self storage Hospitality Food service Drink service Cafés Catering Fast food Food delivery Restaurants Teahouses Hotels Asset management Financial services Banking Credit Financial advice Holding company Money transfer Payment cards Risk management Securities Insurance Health Life Pension funding Property Reinsurance Real estate Brokerage Property management Professional Accounting Assurance Audit Bookkeeping Tax advice Architecture & engineering Inspection Surveying Physical, product, & system testing Design Fashion Interior Product Legal services Management Consulting Public relations Marketing Advertising Creative Language Research and development Basic research Healthcare Medicine Dentist offices Hospitals Nursing Residential care Veterinary medicine Entertainment & leisure Audio-visual Film Music Video games Broadcasting News Radio Television Sport Travel Business travel Cruise lines Tourism Gambling Online Venues Arcades Amusement parks Fairgrounds Nightclubs Tabletop games Publishing & Mass media Written Books Periodicals Software Internet Hosting Social networks Streaming Websites Education Primary Secondary Tertiary Vocational school University Testing Tutoring Other Administrative Customer service Leasing Renting Staffing Private investigation & security Maintenance Janitors Landscaping Repairs Personal services Beauty Dry cleaning Funeral Maid service Pet care Sex Poverty
Related Classification standards Production-based ANZSIC ISIC NACE NAICS SIC UKSIC Market-based GICS ICB TRBC Other Aftermarket Generic OEM Inputs & outputs Externalities Community Crime Culture Pollution Well-being Funding Goods Commodities Final Intermediate Raw material Innovation Primary inputs Labor Natural resources Physical capital Services Technology Organization Centralization Cartel Conglomerate Horizontal integration Mergers and acquisitions Monopoly Monopsony Vertical integration Decentralization Enforced breakup Freelancing Homesteading Outsourcing Putting-out system Spinning-off Temporary work Ownership Cooperative Joint-stock company Nationalization Nonprofit organization Partnership Privatization Sole proprietorship State-owned enterprise
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