Chiang Ching-kuo - Wikipedia

President of Taiwan from 1978 to 1988 In this Chinese name, the family name is Chiang (蔣).

Chiang Ching-kuo
蔣經國
Official portrait, 1985
3rd President of the Republic of China
In office20 May 1978 – 13 January 1988
Premier	See list Hsu Ching-chung (acting)Sun Yun-suanYu Kuo-hwa
Vice President	Hsieh Tung-minLee Teng-hui
Preceded by	Yen Chia-kan
Succeeded by	Lee Teng-hui
1st Chairman of the Kuomintang
In office5 April 1975 – 13 January 1988
Preceded by	Chiang Kai-shek (Director-General of the Kuomintang)
Succeeded by	Lee Teng-hui
9th Premier of the Republic of China
In office29 May 1972 – 20 May 1978
President	Chiang Kai-shekYen Chia-kan
Vice Premier	Hsu Ching-chung
Preceded by	Yen Chia-kan
Succeeded by	Hsu Ching-chung (acting)
11th Vice Premier of the Republic of China[a]
In office1 July 1969 – 1 June 1972
Premier	Yen Chia-kan
Preceded by	Huang Shao-ku
Succeeded by	Hsu Ching-chung
9th Minister of National Defense
In office14 January 1965 – 30 June 1969
Premier	Yen Chia-kan
Preceded by	Yu Da-wei
Succeeded by	Huang Chieh
Minister without Portfolio
In office15 July 1958 – 13 January 1965
Premier	Chen ChengYen Chia-kan
2nd Minister of Vocational Assistance Commission for Retired Servicemen
In office25 April 1956 – 1 July 1964
Premier	Yu Hung-chunChen ChengYen Chia-kan
Preceded by	Yen Chia-kan
Succeeded by	Chau Chu-yue
Personal details
Born	(1910-04-27)27 April 1910[note 1]Fenghua, Zhejiang, Qing China
Died	13 January 1988(1988-01-13) (aged 77)Taipei, Taiwan
Resting place	Touliao Mausoleum, Daxi District, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Political party	Kuomintang
Spouse	Faina Vakhreva ​(m. 1935)​
Children	Chiang Hsiao-wenChiang Hsiao-changChiang Hsiao-yen(illegitimate, disputed[1])Winston Chang(illegitimate, disputed[1])Chiang Hsiao-wuChiang Hsiao-yung
Education	Moscow Sun Yat-sen University
Signature
Military service
Branch/service	Republic of China Army
Years of service	1937–1968
Rank	General

Chiang Ching-kuo
"Chiang Ching-kuo" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese	蔣經國
Simplified Chinese	蒋经国
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎng Jīngguó Wade–Giles Chiang3 Ching1-kuo2 IPA [tɕjàŋ tɕíŋ.kwǒ] Wu Romanization Wu Chinese pronunciation: [tɕiãtɕiŋ.koʔ] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Jéung Gīng-gwok Jyutping Zoeng2 Ging1-gwok3 IPA [tsœŋ˧˥ kɪŋ˥.kʷɔk̚˧] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Chiúⁿ Keng-kok Tâi-lô Tsiúnn King-kok

Chiang Ching-kuo (/ˈtʃæŋtʃɪŋˈkwəʊ/ Jiang Jing Guo,[2] 27 April[note 1] 1910 – 13 January 1988) was a politician of the Republic of China. The eldest and only biological son of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, he held numerous posts in the government of the Republic of China and ended martial law in 1987. He served as the 3rd premier of the Republic of China between 1972 and 1978 and was president of the Republic of China from 1978 until his death in 1988.

Born in Zhejiang, Ching-kuo was sent as a teenager to study in the Soviet Union during the First United Front in 1925, when his father's Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party were in alliance. Before his education in the USSR, he attended school in Shanghai and Beijing, where he became interested in socialism and communism.[3] He attended university in the USSR and spoke Russian fluently,[4] but when the Chinese Nationalists violently broke with the Communists, Joseph Stalin sent him to work in a steel factory in the Ural Mountains. There, Chiang met and married Faina Vakhreva. With war between China and Japan imminent in 1937, Stalin sent the couple to China. During the war, Ching-kuo's father gradually came to trust him, and gave him more and more responsibilities, including administration.

After the Japanese surrender, Ching-kuo was given the job of ridding Shanghai of corruption, which he attacked with ruthless efficiency. The victory of the Communists in 1949 drove the Chiang family and their ROC government to retreat to Taiwan. Ching-kuo was first given control of the secret police, a position he retained until 1965 and in which he used arbitrary arrests and torture to ensure tight control as part of the White Terror. He then became Minister of Defense (1965–1969), Vice-Premier (1969–1972) and Premier (1972–1978). After his father's death in 1975, he took leadership of the Kuomintang (KMT) as chairman, and was elected president in 1978 and again in 1984.

Under his tenure as president, the government of the Republic of China in Taiwan, while remaining authoritarian, became more open and tolerant of political dissent. Chiang courted Taiwanese voters, and reduced the preference for those who had come from the mainland after the war. Toward the end of his life, Chiang decided to relax government controls on the media and speech, and allowed Han born in Taiwan into positions of power, including his eventual successor Lee Teng-hui. He was the last president of the Republic of China to be born during the rule of the Qing dynasty. Ching-kuo was credited for his Soviet-inspired city planning policies,[5] economic development with Ten Major Construction Projects in Taiwan, efforts to clamp down on corruption, as well as the democratic transition of Taiwan and gradually shifting away from the authoritarian dictatorial rule of his own father Chiang Kai-shek.[6]

Biography

[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Early life

[edit]

The son of Chiang Kai-shek and his first wife, Mao Fumei, Chiang Ching-kuo was born in Fenghua, Zhejiang, with the courtesy name of Jiànfēng (建豐). He had an adopted brother, Chiang Wei-kuo. "Ching" literally means "longitude", while "kuo" means "nation"; in his brother's name, "wei" literally means "parallel (of latitude)". The names are inspired by the references in Chinese classics such as the Guoyu, in which "to draw the longitudes and latitudes of the world" is used as a metaphor for a person with great abilities, especially in managing a country.

While the young Chiang Ching-kuo had a good relationship with his mother and grandmother (who were deeply rooted to their Buddhist faith), his relationship with his father was strict, utilitarian and often rocky. Chiang Kai-shek appeared to his son as an authoritarian figure, sometimes indifferent to his problems. Even in personal letters between the two, Chiang Kai-shek would sternly order his son to improve his Chinese calligraphy. From 1916 until 1919 Chiang Ching-kuo attended the "Grammar School" in "Wushan Temple" an important temple in Xikou Town. Then, in 1920, his father hired tutors to teach him the Four Books, the central texts of Confucianism. On 4 June 1921, Ching-kuo's grandmother died. What might have been an immense emotional loss was compensated for when Chiang Kai-shek moved the family to Shanghai. Chiang Ching-kuo's stepmother, historically known as the Chiang family's "Shanghai Mother", went with them. During this period Chiang Kai-shek concluded that Chiang Ching-kuo was a son to be taught, while Chiang Wei-kuo was a son to be loved.

During his time in Shanghai, Chiang Ching-kuo was supervised by his father and made to write a weekly letter of 200–300 Chinese characters. Chiang Kai-shek also underlined the importance of classical books and of learning English, two areas he was hardly proficient in himself.[7] On 20 March 1924, Chiang Ching-kuo was able to present to his now-nationally famous father a proposal concerning the grass-roots organization of the rural population in Xikou.[8] Chiang Ching-kuo planned to provide free education to allow people to read and to write at least 1000 characters. In his own words:

I have a suggestion to make about the Wushan School, although I do not know if you can agree to it. My suggestion is that the school establish a night school for common people who cannot afford to go to the regular school. My school established a night school with great success. I can tell you something about the night school:

Name: Wuschua School for the Common People Tuition fee: Free of charge with stationery supplied Class hours: 7 pm to 9 pm Age limit: 14 or older Schooling protocol: 16 or 20 weeks. At the time of the graduation, the trainees will be able to write simple letters and keep simple accounts. They will be issued a diploma if they pass the examinations. The textbooks they used were published by the Commercial Press and were entitled "One thousand characters for the common people." I do not know whether you will accept my suggestion. If a night school is established at Wushan, it will greatly benefit the local people.

In early 1925, Chiang entered Shanghai's Pudong College, but Chiang Kai-shek decided to send him on to Beijing because of warlord action and spontaneous student protests in Shanghai. In Beijing, he attended the school organized by a friend of his father, Wu Zhihui, a renowned scholar and linguist. The school combined classical and modern approaches to education. While there, Ching-kuo started to identify himself as a progressive revolutionary and participated in the flourishing social scene inside the young Communist community. The idea of studying in Moscow now seized his imagination.[9] Within the help program provided by the Soviet Union to the countries of East Asia there was a training school that later became the Moscow Sun Yat-sen University. The participants to the university were selected by the CPSU and KMT members, with a participation of CPC Central Committee.[10]

Chiang Ching-kuo asked Wu Zhihui to name him as a KMT candidate. Wu did not try to dissuade him, even though Wu was a key figure of the right-leaning and anti-Communist "Western Hills Group" of the KMT. In the summer of 1925, Chiang Ching-kuo traveled south to Whampoa Military Academy to discuss his plans for study in Moscow with his father. Chiang Kai-shek was not keen, but after a discussion with Chen Guofu he finally agreed. In a 1996 interview, Ch'en's brother, Chen Li-fu, recalled that Chiang Kai-shek accepted the plan because of the need to have Soviet support at a time when his hold over the KMT was tenuous.[11]

Moscow

[edit]

With or without his father's enthusiastic approval, Chiang Ching-kuo went on to Moscow in late 1925. He stayed in the Soviet Union for nearly twelve years. While there, Chiang was given the Russian name Nikolai Vladimirovich Elizarov (Николай Владимирович Елизаров) and put under the tutelage of Karl Radek at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East. Noted for having an exceptional grasp of international politics, his classmates included other children of influential Chinese families, most notably the future Chinese Communist party leader, Deng Xiaoping. Chiang Ching-kuo joined the Communist Youth League under Deng.[12][13] Soon Ching-kuo was an enthusiastic student of Communist ideology, particularly Trotskyism; though following the Great Purge, Joseph Stalin privately met with him and ordered him to publicly denounce Trotskyism. Chiang even applied to be a member of the All-Union Communist Party, although his request was denied.

In April 1927, however, Chiang Kai-shek purged KMT leftists, had Communists arrested or killed, and expelled his Soviet advisers. Chiang Ching-kuo responded from Moscow with an editorial that harshly criticized his father's actions but was nonetheless detained as a "guest" of the Soviet Union, a practical hostage. The historiographic debate still continues as to whether he was forced to write the editorial, but he had seen Trotskyist friends arrested and killed by the Soviet secret police. The Soviet government sent him to work in the Ural Heavy Machinery Plant, a steel factory in the Urals, Yekaterinburg (then Sverdlovsk), where he met Faina Ipat'evna Vakhreva, a native Belarusian. They married on 15 March 1935, and she would later take the Chinese name Chiang Fang-liang. In December of that year, their son, Hsiao-wen was born.

Chiang Kai-shek refused to negotiate a prisoner swap for his son in exchange for a Chinese Communist Party leader.[14] He wrote in his diary, "It is not worth it to sacrifice the interest of the country for the sake of my son."[15][16] In 1937, he maintained that "I would rather have no offspring than sacrifice our nation's interests", since he had no intention of stopping the war against the Communists.[17]

Return to China and WWII

[edit]

Stalin allowed Chiang Ching-kuo to return to China with his Belarusian wife and son in April 1937 after living in the USSR for 12 years.[18][19]

By then, the NRA under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists under Mao Zedong had signed a ceasefire to create the Second United Front and fight the Japanese invasion of China, which began in July 1937. Stalin hoped the Chinese would keep Japan from invading the Soviet Pacific coast, and he hoped to form an anti-Japanese alliance with the senior Chiang.[citation needed]

On Ching-kuo's return, his father assigned a tutor, Hsu Dau-lin, to assist with his readjustment to China.[20] Chiang Ching-kuo was appointed as a specialist in remote districts of Jiangxi where he was credited with training of cadres and fighting corruption, opium consumption, and illiteracy. Chiang Ching-kuo was appointed as commissioner of Gannan Prefecture (贛南) between 1939 and 1945; there he banned smoking, gambling and prostitution, studied governmental management, allowed for economic expansion and a change in social outlook. His efforts were hailed as a miracle in the political war in China, then coined as the "Gannan New Deal" (贛南新政). During his time in Gannan, from 1940 he implemented a "public information desk" where ordinary people could visit him if they had problems, and according to records, Chiang Ching-kuo received a total of 1,023 people during such sessions in 1942.[citation needed]

In regard to the ban on prostitution and closing of brothels, Chiang implemented a policy where former prostitutes became employed in factories. Due to the large number of refugees in Ganzhou as a result from the ongoing war, thousands of orphans lived on the street; in June 1942, Chiang Ching-kuo formally established the Chinese Children's Village (中華兒童新村) in the outskirts of Ganzhou, with facilities such as a nursery, kindergarten, primary school, hospital and gymnasium. During the last years of the 1930s, he met Wang Sheng, with whom he would remain close for the next 50 years.[citation needed]

The paramilitary "Sanmin Zhuyi Youth Corps" was under Chiang's control. Chiang used the term "big bourgeoisie", in a disparaging manner to call H.H. Kung and T. V. Soong.[21]

While in mainland China, Chiang and his wife had a daughter, Hsiao-chang, born in Nanchang (1938), and two more sons, Hsiao-wu, born in Chongqing (1945),[19] and Hsiao-yung, born in Shanghai (1948).[19]

Relationship with Chang Ya-juo and her death

[edit]

Chiang met Chang Ya-juo when she was working at a training camp for enlistees and he was serving as the head of Gannan Prefecture during the war. The two had a relationship that brought twin sons: Chang Hsiao-tz'u and Chang Hsiao-yen, born in 1942.[22][23] In August 1942, Chang felt sick at a dinner party, and died the next day in a Guilin hospital. The circumstances of her death raised speculation that it was murder. Over the years, many of her relatives, including her sons and highly ranked ex-security personnel, insisted that KMT's security apparatus orchestrated her murder to keep a lid on CCK's marital affair, and to protect CCK's political career.[24]

Hostage claim

[edit]

Jung Chang and Jon Halliday claim Chiang Kai-shek allowed the Communists to escape on the 1934–1935 Long March because he wanted Stalin to return Chiang Ching-kuo.[25] This is contradicted by Chiang Kai-shek's diary, "It is not worth it to sacrifice the interest of the country for the sake of my son."[15][16] He refused to negotiate for a prisoner swap of his son in exchange for the Chinese Communist Party leader (Zhou Enlai).[26] Again in 1937 he stated about his son: "I would rather have no offspring than sacrifice our nation's interests." Chiang had absolutely no intention of stopping the war against the Communists.[17] Chang and Halliday likewise claim that Chiang Ching-kuo was "kidnapped" in spite of the evidence that he went to study in the Soviet Union with his father's own approval.[25]

Economic policies in Shanghai

[edit]

After the Second Sino-Japanese War and during the Chinese Civil War, Chiang Ching-kuo briefly served as a liaison administrator in Shanghai, trying to eradicate the corruption and hyperinflation that plagued the city. He was determined to do this because of the fears arising from the Nationalists' increasing lack of popularity during the Civil War. Given the task of arresting dishonest businessmen who hoarded supplies for profit during the inflationary spiral, he attempted to assuage the business community by explaining that his team would only go after big war profiteers.

Chiang Ching-kuo copied Soviet methods, which he learned during his stay in the Soviet Union, to start a social revolution by attacking middle class merchants. He also enforced low prices on all goods to raise support from the Proletariat.[27]

Chiang Ching-kuo used his own agents to make arrests in Shanghai, rather than the Shanghai city police.[28]: 178  Chiang Ching-kuo relied on two relatively new organizations which answered directly to him.[28]: 178  He used the Sixth Battalion of the Bandit-Suppression National-Reconstruction Corps to search warehouses for hoarded goods and to place secret report boxes in the city where people could anonymously report violators.[28]: 178–179  He also used the Shanghai Youth Service Corps for enforcement.[28]: 179 

As riots broke out and savings were ruined, bankrupting shopowners, Chiang Ching-kuo began to attack the wealthy, seizing assets and placing them under arrest. The son of the gangster Du Yuesheng was arrested by him.

Ching-kuo ordered KMT agents to raid the Yangtze Development Corporation's warehouses, which was privately owned by H.H. Kung and his family, as the company was accused of hoarding supplies. H.H. Kung's wife was Soong Ai-ling, the sister of Soong Mei-ling who was Chiang Ching-kuo's stepmother.

Chiang Ching-kuo had H.H. Kung's son son David Kung and several employees of the Yangtze Development Corporation arrested on allegations of holding foreign exchange.[28]: 181  Soong Mei-ling called Chiang Kai-shek to complain and also called Chiang Ching-Kuo directly.[28]: 182  David Kung was eventually freed after negotiations, and Chiang Ching-kuo resigned, ending the terror on the Shanghainese merchants.[29]

The major impact of Chiang Ching-kuo's campaign was to cause the flight of prominent capitalists from Shanghai to Hong Kong and elsewhere.[28]: 183  The failure of the campaign also affected Ching-kuo's political influence and reputation temporarily.

Political career in Taiwan

[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

After the Nationalists lost control of mainland China to the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, Chiang Ching-kuo followed his father and the retreating Nationalist forces to Taiwan. On 8 December 1949, the Nationalist capital was moved from Chengdu to Taipei, and early on 10 December 1949, Communist troops laid siege to Chengdu, the last KMT-controlled city on mainland China. Chiang Kai-shek and Chiang Ching-kuo directed the city's defense from the Chengdu Central Military Academy, before the aircraft May-ling evacuated them to Taiwan; they would never return to mainland China.

In 1950, Chiang's father appointed him director of the secret police, which he remained until 1965. An enemy of the Chiang family, Wu Kuo-chen, was kicked out of his position of governor of Taiwan by Chiang Ching-kuo and fled to America in 1953.[30] Chiang Ching-kuo, educated in the Soviet Union, initiated Soviet-style military organization in the Republic of China Military, reorganizing and Sovietizing the political officer corps, surveillance, and KMT party activities were propagated throughout the military. Opposed to this was Sun Li-jen, who was educated at the American Virginia Military Institute.[31]

Chiang orchestrated the controversial court-martial and arrest of General Sun Li-jen in August 1955, allegedly for plotting a coup d'état with the American CIA against his father.[30][32] General Sun was a popular Chinese war hero from the Burma Campaign against the Japanese and remained under house arrest until Chiang Ching-kuo's death in 1988. Ching-kuo also approved the arbitrary arrest and torture of prisoners.[33]

From 1955 to 1960, Chiang administered the construction and completion of Taiwan's highway system. Chiang's father elevated him to high office when he was appointed as the ROC Defense Minister from 1965 until 1969. He was the nation's Vice Premier between 1969 and 1972, during which he survived a 1970 assassination attempt while visiting the U.S.[34] Afterwards he was appointed the nation's Premier between 1972 and 1978.

In 1970, Chiang was the target of an assassination attempt in New York City by Peter Huang.[35]: 27 

As Premier Chiang organized a people's diplomacy campaign in the United States in an effort to mobilize American political sentiment in opposition to the PRC through mass demonstrations and petitions.[36]: 42  Among these efforts, the KMT worked with the John Birch Society to launch a petition writing campaign through which Americans were urged to write their local government officials and ask them to "Cut the Red China connection."[36]: 42 

As Chiang Kai-shek entered his final years, he gradually gave more responsibilities to his son, and when he died in April 1975, Vice President Yen Chia-kan became president for the balance of Chiang Kai-shek's term, while Chiang Ching-kuo succeeded to the leadership of the KMT (he opted for the title "Chairman" rather than the elder Chiang's title of "Director-General").

Leadership

[edit]

Chiang Ching-kuo was elected president of the ROC in the 1978 Taiwanese presidential election by the National Assembly on 20 May 1978. He was reelected to another term in the 1984 Taiwanese presidential election. At that time, the National Assembly consisted mostly of "ten thousand year" legislators [zh], men who had been elected in 1947–48 before the fall of mainland China and who would hold their seats indefinitely. Starting from the 1970s when his father grew sick, Chiang became the de facto leader of the regime and reformed many of his father's autocratic policies and gradually phased out of the white terror by allowing the freedom of peaceful assemblies and political pluralism of the Tangwai movement, which later became the DPP. Chiang also turned down many of the suggestions of the conservatives in the KMT regime to violently suppress the protesters.[6]

In a move he launched the "Ten Major Construction Projects" and the "Twelve New Development Projects" which contributed to the "Taiwan Miracle". Among his accomplishments was accelerating the process of economic modernization to give Taiwan a 13% growth rate, $4,600 per capita income, and the world's second largest foreign exchange reserves. On 16 December 1978, U.S. president Jimmy Carter announced that the United States would no longer recognize the ROC as the legitimate government of China. Under the Taiwan Relations Act, the United States would continue to sell weapons to Taiwan, but the TRA was purposely vague in any promise of defending Taiwan in the event of an invasion.

Chiang Ching-kuo also enacted major labor rights reforms throughout the 1970s and the 1980s that addressed child labor, women's employment, working time, pensions, paid leave, employment contract with several legislations such as the "Labor Safety and Hygiene Law" in 1974 and the "Factory Law" in 1975. The average salary of Taiwanese workers tripled under his rule. Chiang Ching-kuo also loosened the harsh anti-strike laws and union busting practice, thus giving the labor movement more opportunity to bargain for fairer wages as he lifted the martial law provisions.[37]

In an effort to bring more Taiwan-born citizens into government services, Chiang Ching-kuo "exiled" his over-ambitious chief of General Political Warfare Department, General Wang Sheng, to Paraguay as an ambassador (November 1983),[38] and hand-picked Lee Teng-hui as vice-president of the ROC (formally elected May 1984), first-in-the-line of succession to the presidency. Chiang emphatically declared that his successor would not be from the Chiang family in a Constitution Day speech on 25 December 1985:[39]

The first question is the succession to the presidency. This sort of question only exists in despotic and totalitarian countries. It does not exist in the Republic of China, based on the Constitution. So the next president will be elected in accordance with constitutional procedure by the National Assembly on behalf of the people. Some people may raise the question whether any member of my family would run for the next presidency. My answer is: it can't be and it won't be.[40]

Chiang Wei-kuo, Chiang's younger brother, would later repudiate the declaration in 1990 after he was selected as a vice-presidential candidate.[41]

On 15 July 1987, Chiang finally ended martial law and allowed his family to visit the mainland. The ban on tourism to Hong Kong and Macau was also lifted. His administration saw a gradual loosening of political controls and opponents of the Nationalists were no longer forbidden to hold meetings or publish political criticism papers.

Opposition political parties, though still formally illegal, were allowed to operate without harassment or arrest. When the Democratic Progressive Party was established on 28 September 1986, President Chiang decided against dissolving the group or persecuting its leaders, but its candidates officially ran in elections as independents in the Tangwai movement.

Chiang Ching-kuo also increased the political representation of Native Taiwanese under his rule, allowing them to have various positions, which paved the way for Lee Teng-hui to come to power and further democratize Taiwan.[42]

Death and legacy

[edit]

Chiang Ching-kuo died at Taipei Veterans General Hospital on 13 January 1988, aged 77, from a heart attack.[43][44] He used a wheelchair during the last months of his life, and also had diabetes, alongside vision and heart problems.[45] He was interred temporarily in Daxi Township, Taoyuan County (now Daxi District, Taoyuan City), but in a separate mausoleum in Touliao, a mile down the road from his father's burial place. The hope was to have both buried at their birthplace in Fenghua once mainland China was recovered. Composer Hwang Yau-tai wrote the Chiang Ching-kuo Memorial Song in 1988.

In January 2004, Chiang Fang-liang asked that both father and son be buried at Wuchih Mountain Military Cemetery in Hsichih, Taipei County (now New Taipei City). The state funeral ceremony was initially planned for Spring 2005, but was eventually delayed to winter 2005. It may be further delayed due to the recent death of Chiang Ching-kuo's oldest daughter-in-law, who had served as the de facto head of the household since Chiang Fang-liang's death in 2004. Chiang Fang-liang and Soong Mei-ling had agreed in 1997 that the former leaders be first buried, but still be moved to mainland China.[citation needed]

Murray A. Rubinstein called Chiang Ching-kuo more of a civilian leader than his father, whom Rubenstein refers to as a "quasi-warlord."[46]

Jay Taylor has described Chiang Ching-kuo as a figure who was ideologically inspired by a mix of Soviet communism, Chinese nationalism, Taiwanese localism, and American democracy, who became the helmsman of the democratization of Taiwan.[6]

Unlike his highly controversial father, Chiang Ching-kuo's reputation is overwhelmingly positive among the Taiwanese population as the people of Taiwan recognize his economic and social achievements, as well as his efforts of democratization. 38.7% of the population considers him the best president who contributed the most to Taiwan, and he was rated 84.8/100 by the Taiwanese population.[47][48]

Memorials

[edit]

Road names

[edit]

• Jingguo road (in Hsinchu)
• Jingguo road (in Taoyuan)

The Republic of China Air Force

[edit]

The AIDC, the ROC's air defense company, has nicknamed its AIDC F-CK Indigenous Defense Fighter the Ching Kuo in his memory.[citation needed]

Coin

[edit]

• 27 April 2010. 蔣經國先生百年誕辰紀念流通硬幣」 [Coin commemorating the 100th anniversary of Chiang Ching-kuo's birth]

Song

[edit]

• Chiang Ching-kuo Memorial Song

Family

[edit]

• Wife: Faina Chiang Fang-liang, Chiang and she had 3 sons and 1 daughter.
  • First son: Alan Chiang Hsiao-wen (14 December 1935 – 14 April 1989)
    • Chiang Yu-mei (1961–), British Chinese.
  • First daughter: Chiang Hsiao-chang (1938–), married to Yu Yang-ho (俞揚和) until his death in 2010.
    • Theodore Yu Tsu-sheng (俞祖聲)
  • Second son: Alex Chiang Hsiao-wu (25 April 1945 – 1 July 1991)
    • Alexandra Chiang Yo-lan (蔣友蘭)
    • Johnathan Chiang Yo-sung (蔣友松), married in 2002.
      • a daughter (May 2003–)
  • Third son: Eddie Chiang Hsiao-yung (1 October 1948 – 22 December 1996)
    • Demos Chiang Yo-bo (10 September 1976–), DEM Inc (橙果設計) founder. He was married in 2003 to Ms Lin Hen Yi (林姮怡).
      • Chiang De Xi (蔣得曦, 10 July 2003–)
      • Chiang De Yung (蔣得勇, 2005–)
    • Edward Chiang Yo-chang (9 November 1978–)
    • Andrew Chiang Yo-ching (14 June 1990–)
• Mistress: Chang Ya-juo (1913–1942), Chiang and she had 2 sons.
  • Winston Chang Hsiao-tzu
    • Chang Ching-sung (章勁松), married on 2 November 1999.
    • Chang Yu-chu (章友菊, 1978–)
  • John Chiang Hsiao-yen
    • Vivian Chang (?–), married in 2004.
    • Chiang Hui-yun (蔣蕙筠, 1977–), married on 29 April 2007.
    • Chiang Wan-an (26 December 1978–), married in 2008.
      • Chiang De Ri (蔣得立, June 2011–), born in the United States.

Family tree

[edit]

Chiang family tree  view talk edit

Soong May‑ling宋美齡 Mao Fumei毛福梅 Chiang Kai‑shek蔣介石 Yao Yecheng姚冶誠 Chen Jieru陳潔如 Faina Chiang Fang‑liang蔣方良 Chiang Ching-kuo蔣經國 Chang Ya‑juo章亞若(mistress) Shih Chin‑i石靜宜 Chiang Wei‑kuo蔣緯國(adopted) Chiu Ju‑hsüeh丘如雪 Chen Yao‑kuang陳瑶光(adopted) Alan Chiang Hsiao‑wen蔣孝文 Amy Chiang Hsiao‑chang蔣孝章 Alex Chiang Hsiao‑wu蔣孝武 Eddie Chiang Hsiao‑yung蔣孝勇 Winston Chang Hsiao‑tzu章孝慈 John Chiang Hsiao‑yen蔣孝嚴 Chiang Hsiao‑kang蔣孝剛 Nancy Xu Nai‑jin徐乃錦 Yu Yang‑ho俞揚和 Wang Zhang‑shi汪長詩 Michelle Tsai Hui‑mei蔡惠媚 Elizabeth Fang Chi‑yi方智怡 Chao Chung‑te趙申德 Helen Huang Mei‑lun黃美倫 Wang Yi‑hui王倚惠 Theodore Yu Tsu‑sheng俞祖聲 Chang Ching‑sung章勁松 Chang Yo‑chu章友菊 Vivian Chiang Hui‑lan蔣惠蘭 Chiang Hui‑yün蔣惠筠 Chiang Wan‑an蔣萬安 Chiang Yo‑mei蔣友梅 Alexandra Chiang Yo‑lan蔣友蘭 Johnathan Chiang Yo‑sung蔣友松 Demos Chiang Yo‑bo蔣友柏 Edward Chiang Yo‑chang蔣友常 Andrew Chiang Yo‑ching蔣友青 Chiang Yo‑chüan蔣友娟 Chiang Yo‑chieh蔣友捷 Notes Dashed lines represent marriages Dotted lines represent extra-marital relationships and adoptions Solid lines represent descendants

See also

[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chiang Ching-kuo.

• Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation
• Cross-Strait relations
• Views on Chiang Ching-kuo [zh]
• History of the Republic of China
• Military of the Republic of China
• National Revolutionary Army
• Politics of the Republic of China
• Seven Seas Residence
• Sun Yat-sen
• Sino-Soviet relations
• Taiwan–United States relations

Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b Many sources, even Taiwanese official ones, give 18 March 1910 as his birthday, but this actually refers to the lunisolar traditional Chinese calendar.

1. ^ Republic of China is commonly known as Taiwan

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]

1. ^ a b "蔣經國日記否認孝嚴、孝慈是骨肉 2020-06-01". June 2020. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
2. ^ "Chiang Ching-kuo". collinsdictionary.com. Collins. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
3. ^ Hoppens, Robert. "Getting to Know Ching-kuo: Chiang Ching-kuo's 1967 Visit to Japan and Cold War Japan-Taiwan Relations". www.wilsoncenter.org. The Wilson Center. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
4. ^ Bai Hua (白樺) (30 May 2016). "台灣舞蹈團體追尋蔣經國在俄足跡" (in Chinese). Voice of America Cantonese site. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
5. ^ Li Baihao, Li Zhao (1975). "Chiang Ching-kuo and the regional planning of Gannan under the influence of Soviet Experience (1941-1945)". Looking at the World History of Planning. 18 (1). doi:10.7480/iphs.2018.1.2722.
6. ^ a b c "The Generalissimo's Son: Chiang Ching-Kuo and the Revolutions in China and Taiwan by Jay Taylor". Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
7. ^ letter of 4 August 1922
8. ^ Wang Shun-ch'i, unpublished article, 1995. The letter is in the Nanking archive
9. ^ Cline, Chiang Ching-kuo remembered, p. 148
10. ^ Aleksander Pantsov, "From Students to dissidents. The Chinese Troskyites in Soviet Russia (Part 1)", in issues & Studies, 30/3 (March 1994), Institute of international relations, Taipei, pp. 113–14
11. ^ Ch'en Li-fu, interview, Taipei, 29 May 1996.
12. ^ "蔣經國和鄧小平同班感情好為何最終卻分道揚鑣？". China Times. 7 May 2016. Archived from the original on 1 January 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
13. ^ 俄國檔案中的留蘇學生蔣經國. Jiang Jingguo's Student Years in the Soviet Union as Reflected in the Russian Archives. 余敏玲(Miin-Ling Yu). 近代史研究所集刊； 29期 1998 p.121
14. ^ Pakula, Hannah (2009). The last empress: Madame Chiang Kai-shek and the birth of modern China. Simon & Schuster. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-4391-4893-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010. It is not worth it to sacrifice the interest of the country for the sake of my son.
15. ^ a b Taylor, Jay (1 June 2009). The Generalissimo's Son: Chiang Ching-kuo and the Revolutions in China and Taiwan. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674044227. Retrieved 25 June 2023 – via Google Books.
16. ^ a b Fenby, Jonathan (2005). Fenby 2005: 205. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 9780786714841. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
17. ^ a b Taylor, Jay (June 2009). Taylor 2000: p. 74. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674044227. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
18. ^ Wu, Pei-shih (18 May 2003). "Forgotten first lady served as model traditional wife". Taipei Times. Taipei, Taiwan. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
19. ^ a b c Wang, Jaifeng; Hughes, Christopher (January 1998). "Cover Story – Love to Fang-Liang – the Chiang Family Album". Taiwan Panorama. Taipei, Taiwan. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
20. ^ Taylor 2000.
21. ^ Laura Tyson Li (2007). Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady (reprint, illustrated ed.). Grove Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-8021-4322-8. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
22. ^ Demick, Barbara (20 June 2003). "A Scion's Story Full of Twists". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
23. ^ Bradsher, Keith (11 January 2003). "Taiwan Lawmaker's Skill May Be Hereditary". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
24. ^ 上海档案信息网 – 档案博览 (in Chinese). Shanghai Municipal Archives. Archived from the original on 5 January 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
25. ^ a b "A swan's little book of ire". The Sydney Morning Herald. 8 October 2005. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2007.
26. ^ Pakula, Hannah (2009). The last empress: Madame Chiang Kai-Shek and the birth of modern China. Simon & Schuster. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-4391-4893-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010. It is not worth it to sacrifice the interest of the country for the sake of my son.
27. ^ Fenby 2005 : p. 485 Archived 12 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
28. ^ a b c d e f g Coble, Parks M. (2023). The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War. Cambridge New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-29761-5.
29. ^ Fenby 2005, p. 486 Archived 12 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
30. ^ a b Moody, Peter R. (1977). Opposition and dissent in contemporary China. Hoover Press. p. 302. ISBN 0-8179-6771-0. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
31. ^ Taylor, Jay (June 2009). Taylor 2000 : 195. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674044227. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
32. ^ Nancy Bernkopf Tucker (1983). Patterns in the dust: Chinese-American relations and the recognition controversy, 1949–1950. Columbia University Press. p. 181. ISBN 0-231-05362-2. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
33. ^ Garver, John W. (1997). The Sino-American alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War strategy in Asia. M.E. Sharpe. p. 243. ISBN 0-7656-0025-0. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
34. ^ Chuang, Jimmy (19 May 2012). "Would-be Chiang Ching-kuo assassin honored by Taipei University". Want China Times. Taipei. Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2014.
35. ^ Cheng, Wendy (2023). Island X: Taiwanese Student Migrants, Campus Spies, and Cold War Activism. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295752051.
36. ^ a b Minami, Kazushi (2024). People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501774157.
37. ^ "中国大陆和台湾劳工政策之比较". Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
38. ^ Roy, Denny (2003). Taiwan: a political history. Cornell University Press. pp. 179–180. ISBN 0-8014-8805-2.
39. ^ Staff (26 December 1985). "Taiwan chief rules out chance family member will succeed him". The New York Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
40. ^ Ching-kuo, Chiang (25 December 1985). Constitution to Determine His Successor (Speech). Constitution Day. Taipei, Taiwan. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
41. ^ Jacobs, J. Bruce (2012). "Three: The Lee Teng-Hui presidency to early 1996". Democratizing Taiwan. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 72. ISBN 978-90-04-22154-3. Retrieved 19 May 2016. On February 13, 1990 a group of National Assembly members proposed Lin Yang-kang for president and the following day Chiang Wego denied that his brother Chiang Ching-kuo had said, "Members of the Chiang family cannot and will not run for president." Footnote 19: [...] Chiang Ching-kuo made this statement on 25 December 1985.
42. ^ Archived copyArchived 7 February 2023 at the Wayback Machine
43. ^ Pace, Eric (14 January 1988). "Chiang Ching-kuo Dies at 77, Ending a Dynasty on Taiwan". New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
44. ^ Southerl, Daniel (14 January 1988). "LONGTIME TAIWANIAN LEADER CHIANG CHING-KUO, 77, DIES". Washington Post. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
45. ^ "TAIWAN LEADER DIES, ENDING FAMILY RULE". Washington Post. 13 January 1988. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
46. ^ Taiwan: A New History. p. 435.
47. ^ "遠見民調》「哪位總統對台灣貢獻最大」 他遙遙領先、第二名看不到車尾燈-風傳媒". 25 October 2019. Archived from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
48. ^ "只贏蔣介石.... 台灣民調歷任總統評價：最親中馬英九倒數第二 | 台灣英文新聞 | 2020-08-24 18:07:00". 24 August 2020. Archived from the original on 31 July 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.

Sources

[edit] Books cited

• Taylor, Jay (2000). The Generalissimo's Son: Chiang Ching-Kuo and the Revolutions in China and Taiwan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00287-3.
• Fenby, Jonathan (2005). Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-1484-0.

Further reading

[edit]

• Matray, James I., ed. East Asia and the United States: an encyclopedia of relations since 1784. Vol. 1 (Greenwood, 2002) 1:274–275.

External links

[edit] Chiang Ching-kuo at Wikipedia's sister projects

• Definitions from Wiktionary
• Media from Commons
• News from Wikinews
• Quotations from Wikiquote
• Texts from Wikisource
• Textbooks from Wikibooks
• Resources from Wikiversity

• ROC Government biography
• Remembering Chiang Ching-kuo
• 1981 GIO video: Hello, Mr. President-Chiang Ching-kuo and His People
• Kuomintang Official Website Archived 29 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine
• Corpus of Political Speeches Free access to political speeches by Chiang Ching-kuo and other Chinese politicians, developed by Hong Kong Baptist University Library

Government offices
Preceded byYu Ta-wei [zh]	Minister of National Defence of the Republic of China 1965–1969	Succeeded byHuang Chieh
Preceded byYen Chia-kan	Premier of the Republic of China 1972–1978	Succeeded bySun Yun-suan
Political offices
Preceded byYen Chia-kan	Acting Vice President of the Republic of China 1975–1978	Succeeded byHsieh Tung-ming
Preceded byYen Chia-kan	President of the Republic of China 1978–1988	Succeeded byLee Teng-hui
Party political offices
Preceded byChiang Kai-shekDirector-General of the Kuomintang	Chairman of the Kuomintang 1975–1988	Succeeded byLee Teng-hui

v t e Presidents of the Republic of China
Provisional Government	Sun Yat-sen (1912) Yuan Shikai (1912–1913)
Beiyang government	Yuan Shikai (1913–1916) Li Yuanhong (1916–1917) Feng Guozhang (1917–1918; acting) Xu Shichang (1918–1922) Li Yuanhong (1922–1923) Gao Lingwei (1923; acting) Cao Kun (1923–1924) Huang Fu (1924; acting) Duan Qirui (1924–1926) Hu Weide (1926; acting) Yan Huiqing (1926; acting) Du Xigui (1926; acting) Wellington Koo (1926–1927; acting) Zhang Zuolin (1927–1928)
Nationalist government(Chairman)	Tan Yankai (1928) Chiang Kai-shek (1928–1931) Lin Sen (1931–1943) Chiang Kai-shek (1943–1948)
Constitutional government(Indirect election)	Chiang Kai-shek (1948–1949) Li Tsung-jen (1949–1950; acting) Chiang Kai-shek (1950–1975; resumed) Yen Chia-kan (1975–1978) Chiang Ching-kuo (1978–1988) Lee Teng-hui (1988–1996)
Constitutional government(Direct election)	Lee Teng-hui (1996–2000) Chen Shui-bian (2000–2008) Ma Ying-jeou (2008–2016) Tsai Ing-wen (2016–2024) Lai Ching-te (2024–present)
See also List of presidents of the Republic of China Xia → Shang → Zhou → Qin → Han → 3 Kingdoms → Jìn / 16 Kingdoms → S. Dynasties / N. Dynasties → Sui → Tang → 5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms → Liao / Song / W. Xia / Jīn → Yuan → Ming → Qing → ROC / PRC

v t e Heads of government of the Republic of China
Premiers of Cabinet	Tang Shaoyi Lu Zhengxiang Zhao Bingjun Duan Qirui* Xiong Xiling Sun Baoqi*
Secretaries of State	Xu Shichang Lu Zhengxiang*
Premiers of State Council	Duan Qirui Wu Tingfang* Li Jingxi
Premiers of State Council	Duan Qirui Wang Daxie* Wang Shizhen* Qian Nengxun* Gong Xinzhan* Jin Yunpeng Sa Zhenbing Yan Huiqing* Liang Shiyi Zhou Ziqi* Wang Chonghui* Wang Zhengting* Zhang Shaozeng Gao Lingwei Sun Baoqi Vi Kyuin Wellington Koo* Huang Fu* Xu Shiying Jia Deyao* Hu Weide* Du Xigui* Pan Fu
Presidents of Executive Yuan(Mainland China)	Tan Yankai T. V. Soong Chiang Kai-shek Chen Mingshu Sun Fo Wang Jingwei H. H. Kung Zhang Qun Weng Wenhao He Yingqin
Presidents of Executive Yuan(Taiwan)	Yan Xishan Chen Cheng Yu Hung-chun Yen Chia-kan Chiang Ching-kuo Sun Yun-suan Yu Kuo-hwa Lee Huan Hau Pei-tsun Lien Chan Vincent Siew Tang Fei Chang Chun-hsiung Yu Shyi-kun Frank Hsieh Su Tseng-chang Liu Chao-shiuan Wu Den-yih Sean Chen Jiang Yi-huah Mao Chi-kuo Chang San-cheng Lin Chuan Lai Ching-te Su Tseng-chang Chen Chien-jen Cho Jung-tai
*acting

v t e Vice premiers (vice presidents of Executive Yuan) of the Republic of China
Feng Yuxiang T. V. Soong Chen Mingshu T. V. Soong H. H. Kung Chang Ch'ün H. H. Kung Weng Wenhao Wang Yun-wu Ku Meng-yu Chang Li-sheng Wu Tiecheng Chia Ching-teh Zhu Jiahua Chang Li-sheng Huang Shao-ku Wang Yun-wu Yu Ching-tang Huang Shao-ku Chiang Ching-kuo Hsu Ching-chung Chiu Chuang-huan Lin Yang-kang Lien Chan Shih Chi-yang Hsu Li-teh Chiang Hsiao-yen Liu Chao-shiuan Yu Shyi-kun Chang Chun-hsiung Lai In-jaw Lin Hsin-i Yeh Chu-lan Wu Rong-i Tsai Ing-wen Chiou I-jen Chang Chun-hsiung* Paul Chiu Eric Chu Li-luan Sean Chen Jiang Yi-huah Mao Chi-kuo Chang San-cheng Woody Duh Lin Hsi-yao Shih Jun-ji Chen Chi-mai Shen Jong-chin Cheng Wen-tsan Cheng Li-chun
* acting

v t e Kuomintang
History	History of the Kuomintang History of the Kuomintang cultural policy National Revolutionary Army Northern Expedition Blue Sky with a White Sun Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang 2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China
Founders	Song Jiaoren Sun Yat-sen Lu Haodong (Flag, emblem creator)
Ideology	Chinese unification Chiangism Dang Guo Five Races Under One Union Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang Three Principles of the People Zhonghua minzu
Leaders	Sun Yat-sen Song Jiaoren Zhang Renjie Chiang Kai-shek Hu Hanmin Wang Jingwei Chiang Ching-kuo Lee Teng-hui Lien Chan Ma Ying-jeou Wu Po-hsiung Chiang Pin-kung Wu Den-yih Eric Chu Huang Min-hui Hung Hsiu-chu Lin Junq-tzer Wu Den-yih Lin Rong-te Johnny Chiang
Party congress	1st (1924) 2nd (1926) 3rd (1929) 4th (1931) 5th (1935) Extraordinary (1938) 6th (Wang, 1939) 6th (1945) 7th (1952) 8th (1957) 9th (1963) 10th (1969) 11th (1976) 12th (1981) 13th (1988) 14th (1993) 15th (1997) 16th (2001) 17th (2005) 18th (2009) 19th (2013) 20th (2017) 21st (2021)
Leadership elections	2001 2005 2007 (b) 2009 2013 2015 (b) 2016 (b) 2017 2020 (b) 2021
Significant venues	Huguang Guild Hall Presidential Palace (Nanjing)
See also	List of assets owned by the Kuomintang 2019 Kuomintang presidential primary
Notes: Acting leaders italicised ; By-elections denoted with (b)

v t e Chinese Civil War
Principal belligerents and campaigns Nationalist Party / National Government ( National Revolutionary Army) → Constitutional ROC Government (ROC Armed Forces) → Republic of China on Taiwan Communist Party / Soviet Republic ( Red Army) → Liberated Area ( 8th Route Army, New Fourth Army, etc. → People's Liberation Army) →  People's Republic of China
Pre-1945 Post-1945 1923 Sun–Joffe Manifesto 1924 First United Front 1926 Canton Coup 1927–1949 Chinese Communist Revolution 1927 Nanking incidentShanghai CommuneShanghai massacreNanjing–Wuhan split715 IncidentLittle Long MarchNanchang uprisingAutumn Harvest UprisingGuangzhou Uprising 1930–1934 Encirclement campaigns 1931–1934 Chinese Soviet Republic 1933–1934 Fujian People's Government 1934–1936 Long March 1936 Xi'an Incident 1937–1946 Second United Front (Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists) 1941 New Fourth Army incident 1944 Dixie Mission 1945 Chongqing NegotiationsDouble Tenth AgreementRetrocession of Taiwan 1946 Jiaochangkou IncidentPeiping rape case 1945–1947 Marshall Mission 1945–1949 Operation Beleaguer 1947 Yu Zisan Incident 1948 SS Kiangya incidentLiaoshen campaign 1948–1949 Huaihai campaignPingjin campaign 1949 Taiping Steamer IncidentYangtze River Crossing campaignAmethyst Incident ROC Government retreat to TaiwanPRC incorporation of Xinjiang 1949–1953 Bombing of Shanghai 1950 Hainan Island campaignWanshan Archipelago Campaign 1950–1958 Kuomintang Islamic insurgency 1961–1972 Project National Glory

v t e Cold War
United States Soviet Union NATO Warsaw Pact ANZUS METO SEATO NEATO Rio Pact Non-Aligned Movement
1940s	Morgenthau Plan Hukbalahap rebellion Jamaican political conflict Dekemvriana Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Operation Priboi Operation Jungle Occupation of the Baltic states Cursed soldiers Operation Unthinkable Gouzenko Affair Division of Korea Indonesian National Revolution Operation Masterdom Operation Beleaguer Operation Blacklist Forty Iran crisis of 1946 Greek Civil War Baruch Plan Corfu Channel incident Turkish Straits crisis Restatement of Policy on Germany First Indochina War 1947 Polish parliamentary election Truman Doctrine Asian Relations Conference May 1947 crises Partition of India Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948 1947–1949 Palestine war 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 1948 Arab–Israeli War 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight Marshall Plan Comecon 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council Al-Wathbah uprising Tito–Stalin split Berlin Blockade Annexation of Hyderabad Madiun Affair Western betrayal Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Chinese Civil War Chinese Communist Revolution Malayan Emergency March 1949 Syrian coup d'état Operation Valuable
1950s	Bamboo curtain McCarthyism Korean War Arab Cold War (1952–1979) 1952 Egyptian revolution Iraqi Intifada (1952) Mau Mau rebellion East German uprising of 1953 1953 Iranian coup d'état Pact of Madrid Bricker Amendment 1954 Syrian coup d'état Petrov Affair Domino theory 1954 Geneva Conference 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Capture of the Tuapse First Taiwan Strait Crisis Jebel Akhdar War Algerian War Kashmir Princess Bandung Conference Geneva Summit (1955) Vietnam War Cyprus Emergency "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences" 1956 Poznań protests Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Polish October Suez Crisis "We will bury you" Operation Gladio Syrian Crisis of 1957 Sputnik crisis Ifni War Iraqi 14 July Revolution 1958 Lebanon crisis Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 1959 Mosul uprising 1959 Tibetan uprising Laotian Civil War Kitchen Debate Cuban Revolution Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution Sino-Soviet split
1960s	Congo Crisis Simba rebellion 1960 U-2 incident Bay of Pigs Invasion 1960 Turkish coup d'état Albanian–Soviet split Expulsion of Soviets from Albania Iraqi–Kurdish conflict First Iraqi–Kurdish War Berlin Crisis of 1961 Berlin Wall Annexation of Goa Papua conflict Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation Sand War Portuguese Colonial War Angolan War of Independence Guinea-Bissau War of Independence Mozambican War of Independence Cuban Missile Crisis El Porteñazo Sino-Indian War Communist insurgency in Sarawak Ramadan Revolution Eritrean War of Independence North Yemen Civil War 1963 Syrian coup d'état Assassination of John F. Kennedy Aden Emergency Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964 Shifta War Mexican Dirty War Tlatelolco massacre Guatemalan Civil War Colombian conflict 1964 Brazilian coup d'état Dominican Civil War Rhodesian Bush War Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966 Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) ASEAN Declaration 1966 Syrian coup d'état Cultural Revolution Argentine Revolution South African Border War Korean DMZ Conflict 12-3 incident Greek junta 1967 Hong Kong riots Years of Lead (Italy) Six-Day War War of Attrition Dhofar War Al-Wadiah War Nigerian Civil War Protests of 1968 May 68 Prague Spring USS Pueblo incident 1968 Polish political crisis 1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency Communist insurgency in Malaysia Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 17 July Revolution 1968 Peruvian coup d'état Revolutionary Government 1969 Sudanese coup d'état 1969 Libyan revolution Goulash Communism Sino-Soviet border conflict New People's Army rebellion
1970s	Détente Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Black September Alcora Exercise Corrective Movement (Syria) Western Sahara conflict Cambodian Civil War Communist insurgency in Thailand 1970 Polish protests Koza riot Realpolitik Ping-pong diplomacy 1971 JVP insurrection Corrective revolution (Egypt) 1971 Turkish military memorandum 1971 Sudanese coup d'état Four Power Agreement on Berlin Bangladesh Liberation War 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 First Yemenite War Munich massacre 1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency Eritrean Civil Wars 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état 1973 Afghan coup d'état 1973 Chilean coup d'état Yom Kippur War 1973 oil crisis Carnation Revolution Spanish transition to democracy Metapolitefsi Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Second Iraqi–Kurdish War Turkish invasion of Cyprus 15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état Siege of Dhaka (1975) Sipahi-Janata revolution Angolan Civil War Cambodian genocide June 1976 protests Mozambican Civil War Oromo conflict Ogaden War 1978 Somali coup attempt Western Sahara War Ethiopian Civil War Lebanese Civil War Sino-Albanian split Third Indochina War Cambodian–Vietnamese War Cambodian conflict Operation Condor Dirty War (Argentina) 1976 Argentine coup d'état Egyptian–Libyan War German Autumn Korean Air Lines Flight 902 Nicaraguan Revolution Uganda–Tanzania War NDF Rebellion Chadian–Libyan War Second Yemenite War Grand Mosque seizure Iranian revolution Saur Revolution Sino-Vietnamese War New Jewel Movement 1979 Herat uprising Seven Days to the River Rhine Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
1980s	Salvadoran Civil War Soviet–Afghan War 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts Gera Demands Peruvian Revolution Gdańsk Agreement Solidarity Eritrean Civil Wars 1980 Turkish coup d'état Ugandan Bush War Gulf of Sidra incident Martial law in Poland Casamance conflict Falklands War 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War Ndogboyosoi War United States invasion of Grenada Able Archer 83 Star Wars 1985 Geneva Summit Iran–Iraq War Somali Rebellion Reykjavík Summit 1986 Black Sea incident South Yemen civil war Toyota War 1987 Lieyu massacre Operation Denver 1987–1989 JVP insurrection Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 1988 Black Sea bumping incident 8888 Uprising Solidarity (Soviet reaction) Contras Central American crisis Operation RYAN Korean Air Lines Flight 007 People Power Revolution Glasnost Perestroika Bougainville conflict First Nagorno-Karabakh War Afghan Civil War United States invasion of Panama 1988 Polish strikes Polish Round Table Agreement 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Fall of the inner German border Velvet Revolution Romanian Revolution Peaceful Revolution
1990s	Mongolian Revolution of 1990 Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident Gulf War Min Ping Yu No. 5202 German reunification Yemeni unification Fall of communism in Albania Breakup of Yugoslavia Dissolution of the Soviet Union 1991 August Coup Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
Frozen conflicts	Abkhazia China-Taiwan Korea Kosovo South Ossetia Transnistria Sino-Indian border dispute North Borneo dispute
Foreign policy	Truman Doctrine Containment Eisenhower Doctrine Domino theory Hallstein Doctrine Kennedy Doctrine Peaceful coexistence Ostpolitik Johnson Doctrine Brezhnev Doctrine Nixon Doctrine Ulbricht Doctrine Carter Doctrine Reagan Doctrine Rollback Kinmen Agreement
Ideologies	Capitalism Liberalism Chicago school Conservatism American conservatism Keynesianism Libertarianism Monetarism Neoclassical economics Reaganomics Supply-side economics Democratic capitalism Socialism Communism Marxism–Leninism Castroism Eurocommunism Guevarism Hoxhaism Juche Ho Chi Minh Thought Maoism Trotskyism Stalinism Titoism Other Imperialism Anti-imperialism Nationalism Ultranationalism Chauvinism Ethnic nationalism Racism Zionism Anti-Zionism Fascism Neo-Nazism Islamism Totalitarianism Authoritarianism Autocracy Liberal democracy Illiberal democracy Guided democracy Social democracy Third-worldism White supremacy White nationalism White separatism Apartheid
Organizations	NATO SEATO METO EEC Warsaw Pact Comecon Non-Aligned Movement NN States ASEAN SAARC Safari Club
Propaganda	Pro-communist Active measures Izvestia Neues Deutschland Pravda Radio Moscow Rudé právo Trybuna Ludu TASS Soviet Life Pro-Western Amerika Crusade for Freedom Paix et Liberté Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Red Scare Voice of America
Technologicalcompetition	Arms race Nuclear arms race Space Race
Historians	Gar Alperovitz Thomas A. Bailey Michael Beschloss Archie Brown Warren H. Carroll Adrian Cioroianu John Costello Michael Cox Nicholas J. Cull Norman Davies Willem Drees Robert D. English Herbert Feis Robert Hugh Ferrell André Fontaine Anneli Ute Gabanyi John Lewis Gaddis Lloyd Gardner Timothy Garton Ash Gabriel Gorodetsky Fred Halliday Jussi Hanhimäki John Earl Haynes Patrick J. Hearden Tvrtko Jakovina Tony Judt Harvey Klehr Gabriel Kolko Walter LaFeber Walter Laqueur Melvyn P. Leffler Geir Lundestad Vojtech Mastny Jack F. Matlock Jr. Thomas J. McCormick Timothy Naftali Marius Oprea David S. Painter William B. Pickett Ronald E. Powaski Yakov M. Rabkin M. E. Sarotte Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Ellen Schrecker Giles Scott-Smith Shen Zhihua Timothy Snyder Athan Theoharis Andrew Thorpe Vladimir Tismăneanu Patrick Vaughan Alex von Tunzelmann Odd Arne Westad William Appleman Williams Jonathan Reed Winkler Rudolph Winnacker Ken Young
Espionage andintelligence	List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States Soviet espionage in the United States Russian espionage in the United States American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation CIA and the Cultural Cold War CIA MI5 MI6 United States involvement in regime change Soviet involvement in regime change MVD KGB Stasi
See also	Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War Soviet Union–United States relations Soviet Union–United States summits Russia–NATO relations War on terror Brinkmanship Second Cold War Russian Revolution
Category List of conflicts Timeline

Authority control databases
International	ISNI VIAF FAST WorldCat
National	Germany United States France BnF data Australia Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Greece Korea Poland Israel
Academics	CiNii
People	Trove
Other	IdRef NARA SNAC