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Abstract

The Hmong-Mien (HM) and Sino-Tibetan (ST) speaking groups are known as hill tribes in Thailand; they were the subject of the first studies to show an impact of patrilocality vs. matrilocality on patterns of mitochondrial (mt) DNA vs. male-specific portion of the Y chromosome (MSY) variation. However, HM and ST groups have not been studied in as much detail as other Thai groups; here we report and analyze 234 partial MSY sequences (∼2.3 mB) and 416 complete mtDNA sequences from 14 populations that, when combined with our previous published data, provides the largest dataset yet for the hill tribes. We find a striking difference between Hmong and IuMien (Mien-speaking) groups: the Hmong are genetically different from both the IuMien and all other Thai groups, whereas the IuMien are genetically more similar to other linguistic groups than to the Hmong. In general, we find less of an impact of patrilocality vs. matrilocality on patterns of mtDNA vs. MSY variation than previous studies. However, there is a dramatic difference in the frequency of MSY and mtDNA lineages of Northeast Asian (NEA) origin vs. Southeast Asian (SEA) origin in HM vs. ST groups: HM groups have high frequencies of NEA MSY lineages but lower frequencies of NEA mtDNA lineages, while ST groups show the opposite. A potential explanation is that the ancestors of Thai HM groups were patrilocal, while the ancestors of Thai ST groups were matrilocal. Overall, these results attest to the impact of cultural practices on patterns of mtDNA vs. MSY variation.

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The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Figures

Fig. 1

Fig. 1. Map of sampling locations.

There…

Fig. 1. Map of sampling locations.

There are 14 populations sampled in the present study…

Fig. 1. Map of sampling locations. There are 14 populations sampled in the present study from northern Thailand (HM1–HM5, Y1–Y2, KSK3, MR, MR, LS and SH2) and northeastern Thailand (PT2 and IS5), together with 59 Thai/Lao populations sampled in previous studies [–15]. Red stars, green triangles, black circles, and blue squares represent Hmong-Mien, Sino-Tibetan, Austroasiatic, and Tai-Kadai speaking populations, respectively. The barplots on the left and right sides of the map depict the proportion of MSY and mtDNA haplogroups specific to Northeast Asia (NEA), Southeast Asia (SEA), or of unknown/other origin.
Fig. 2

Fig. 2. Genetic diversity values shown as…

Fig. 2. Genetic diversity values shown as the percent difference from the average.

( a …

Fig. 2. Genetic diversity values shown as the percent difference from the average. (a) haplotype diversity, (b) haplogroup diversity and (c) MPD. The gray line shows the mean across populations. (d) Tajima’s D values; solid symbols indicate values significantly different from zero (P < 0.05). More information and all genetic diversity values are provided in Supplementary Table S1. The new populations are placed at the left of the figure. Population names are color-coded according to language family; red, green, black, and blue represent HM, ST, AA, and TK- speaking populations, respectively.
Fig. 3

Fig. 3. Frequency of shared haplotypes and…

Fig. 3. Frequency of shared haplotypes and heat plot of Φ st values.

( a )…

Fig. 3. Frequency of shared haplotypes and heat plot of Φst values. (a) Frequency of shared MSY (above diagonal) and mtDNA (below diagonal) haplotypes within and between populations. (b) Heat plot of Φst values based on MSY (above diagonal) and mtDNA (below diagonal) haplotypes. The “=” symbol indicates Φst values that are not significantly different from zero (P > 0.05). The new populations are placed at the left of the figure. Population names are color-coded according to language family; red, green, black and blue represent HM, ST, AA, and TK-speaking populations, respectively.
Fig. 4

Fig. 4. MDS plots based on the …

Fig. 4. MDS plots based on the Φ st distance for Thai/Lao populations.

The three-dimensional MDS…

Fig. 4. MDS plots based on the Φst distance for Thai/Lao populations. The three-dimensional MDS plots for 68 Thai/Lao populations (after removal of Maniq, Mlabri, Htin (TN1, TN2) and Seak (SK)) for (a–c) MSY and (d–f) mtDNA. The stress values are 0.1094 for MSY and 0.1258 for mtDNA.
Fig. 5

Fig. 5. The three-dimensional MDS plot based…

Fig. 5. The three-dimensional MDS plot based on the Φ st distance matrix for 88…

Fig. 5. The three-dimensional MDS plot based on the Φst distance matrix for 88 SEA populations. (a-c) MSY and (d-f) mtDNA. The stress values are 0.1306 for MSY and 0.1350 for mtDNA.
Fig. 6

Fig. 6. Bayesian skyline plots (BSPs).

The…

Fig. 6. Bayesian skyline plots (BSPs).

The BSPs based on the MSY and mtDNA for…

Fig. 6. Bayesian skyline plots (BSPs). The BSPs based on the MSY and mtDNA for the Hmong, IuMien, Lahu, Karen, Shan and Phutai groups. Solid lines are the median estimated effective population size (y-axis) through time from the present in years (x-axis). The 95% highest posterior density limits are indicated by dotted lines.
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References

    1. Eberhard DM, Simons GF, Fennig CD. Ethnologue: languages of the World. 23rd edn. Dallas: SIL International; 2020.
    1. Higham C. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: from first humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books Press; 2014.
    1. McColl H, Racimo F, Vinner L, Demeter F, Gakuhari T, Moreno-Mayar JV, et al. The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia. Science. 2018;361:88–92. - PubMed
    1. Lipson M, Cheronet O, Mallick S, Rohland N, Oxenham M, Pietrusewsky M, et al. Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory. Science. 2018;361:92–5. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Blench R. Reconstructing Austroasiatic prehistory. In: Sidwell P, Jenny M editors. Handbook of Austroasiatic. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics; 2015.
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