Austroasiatic language spoken in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and China Not to be confused with Khmer language.
Khmu
Kmhmuກຶມຫມຸกำมุ
Native to
Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, China
Ethnicity
Khmu
Native speakers
(798,400 cited 1990–2015 census)[1][2]
Language family
Austroasiatic
Khmuic
Khmu
Writing system
Lao, Latin, Thai
Language codes
ISO 639-3
Either:kjg – Khmukhf – Buddhist Khmu (Kmhmu' Khwen)[3][4]
Glottolog
khmu1255
Khmu [kʰmuʔ] is the language of the Khmu people of the northern Laos region. It is also spoken in adjacent areas of Vietnam, Thailand and China. Khmu lends its name to the Khmuic branch of the Austroasiatic language family, the latter of which also includes Khmer and Vietnamese. Within Austroasiatic, Khmu is often cited as being most closely related to the Palaungic and Khasic languages.[5] The name "Khmu" can also be seen romanized as Kmhmu, Khmu', Kammu, or Khamuk in various publications or alternatively referred to by the name of a local dialect.
Dialects
[edit]Approximate location of Khmu dialects in Laos
Khmu has several dialects but no standard variety. Dialects differ primarily in consonant inventory, existence of register, and the degree to which the language has been influenced by the surrounding national language(s). Dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible; however communication can be difficult between speakers of geographically distant dialects.
The dialects of Khmu can be broadly categorized into two groups, Western Khmu and Eastern Khmu.
Western Khmu dialects have fewer consonant phonemes and instead use phonemic register contrast, as seen in other Austroasiatic languages, of "lax" breathy register and "tense" modal register. In at least one dialect of Western Khmu, known as Khmu Rook, tonogenesis is evident as the register contrast has developed into a system of two phonetic tones with six phonemic realizations.[6]
Eastern Khmu dialects show the opposite tendency. Completely lacking either register or tone distinction, these dialects utilize a three-way distinction of stops (voiced, voiceless and aspirated voiceless) and nasals (voiced, voiceless, and pre-glottalized) in the syllable-initial position for phonemic contrast.[7]
Suwilai Premsrirat (2002)
[edit]
Suwilai Premsrirat (2002)[8] reports the following locations and dialects of Kmhmu' in Laos, Vietnam, China, and Thailand.
Laos: spoken in the 8 northern provinces of Luang Namtha, Udomsai, Bokeo, Sayaburi, Phongsali, Luang Prabang, and Xiaq kvaaq, with a few villages near Vientiane. Dialects include Kmhmu' Rook, Khmu Lw, and Kmhmu' Cwaq (also known as Kmhmu' Uu).
Vietnam: Kim Hua, Sop Pot, Sop Caw and Pung Kamong Villages, Kim Da Subdistrict, Tương Dương District, Vinh City, Nghệ An Province. Also in Lai Châu Province, Sơn La Province, and Thanh Hóa Province.
China: Pung Soa village (more conservative with voicing contrasts in the initial consonants) and Om Kae village (has tonal contrasts) in Sipsongpanna, Yunnan
Thailand: many villages, including the representative datapoint of Huai Ian village, Lai Ngao subdistrict, Wiang Kaen district, Chiang Rai province (originally from Pak Bang district of Laos, where the language is called Khmu Khrong, meaning 'Mekong Khmu'). Also in Nan province and Lampang province.
Phonology
[edit]
Consonants
[edit]
The consonant inventory of Khmu' is shown in the table below. The phoneme /f/, present in dialects of both Eastern and Western Khmu', is a result of borrowings from the surrounding Tai languages.[9]
Labial
Alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
Plosive
Aspirated
pʰ
tʰ
cʰ
kʰ
Voiceless
p
t
c
k
ʔ
Voiced
b
d
ɟ1
ɡ1
Nasal
Voiceless1
m̥
n̥
ɲ̥
ŋ̊
Voiced
m
n
ɲ
ŋ
Preglottalized1
ˀm
ˀn
ˀɲ
ˀŋ
Fricative
Voiceless
(f)
s
h
Approximant
Voiceless1
w̥2
l̥
r̥
j̊
Voiced
w
l
r
j
Preglottalized1
ˀw
ˀj
Only found in Eastern Khmu dialects.
w̥ is a voiceless labio-velar approximant
Vowels
[edit]
The vowels of the Khmu' language show little variation across the dialects with all varieties having 19 monophthongs and three diphthongs (/iə/, /ɨə/ and /uə/).[6]
Front
Central
Back
short
long
short
long
short
long
Close
i
iː
ɨ
ɨː
u
uː
Close-mid
e
eː
ə
əː
o
oː
Open-mid
ɛ
ɛː
ʌː
ɔ
ɔː
Open
a
aː
Grammar
[edit]
Pronouns
[edit]
Person
Singular
Dual
Plural
1st
ໂອະ (òɂ)
ອະ (àɂ)
ອິ (ìɂ)
2nd
ແຢະ (jɛ̀ɂ) (masculine), ປາ (pàː) (feminine)
ສວາ (swáː)
ປໍ (pɔ̀ː)
3rd
ກັຽ (kəː) (masculine), ນາ (nàː) (feminine)
ສນາ (snáː)
ນໍ (nɔ̀ː)
Syntax
[edit]
Khmu uses mainly an SVO word order although an OVS order is also possible.
Vocabulary
[edit]
Numeral
[edit]
Cardinal
/nɨŋ/
/sɔ́ːŋ/
/sáːm/
/síː/
/háː/
/rók/
/cét/
/pɛ́t/
/káw/
/síp/
ນຶງ
ສອງ
ສາມ
ສີ
ຫາ
ຣົກ
ເຈຕັ
ແປດ
ເກົ້າ
ສິບ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ordinal
/mòːj/
/pà:ː/
/péʔ/
/puːl/
/pɨəŋ/
/tɔːl/
/tel/
/taːm/
/kaːj/
/kal/
ໂມຢ
ປາຣ
ເປະ
ປູລ
ເປືອງ
ຕອລ
ເຕລ
ຕາມ
ກາຍ
ກັລ
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
Comparison with Khmer
[edit]
English
Khmu
Khmer
dog
ເສາະ ([sɔ́ɂ])
ឆ្កែ (chhkê)
child
ກອນ ([kɔ́ːn])
កូន (kon)
mother
ມະ ([màɂ])
ម៉ាក់ (măk)
flower
ຣາງ ([ràːŋ])
ផ្កា (phka)
mountain
ມົກ ([mòk])
ភ្នំ (phnum)
to see
ກເລະ ([klèɂ])
ឃើញ (kheunh)
enemy
ສັຕູ ([satùː])
សត្រូវ (sâtrov)
to disappear
ງັຕ ([ŋát])
បាត់ (băt)
to shoot
ປິຍ ([píɲ])
បាញ់ (bănh)
seven
ເຈຕັ ([cét])
ប្រាំពីរ (brămpir)
penis
ລົກ ([lòk])
លិង្គ (lĭngk)
See also
[edit]
Khmuic languages
Khmu people
List of Khmu plant common names
List of Khmu animal common names
References
[edit]
^"Kmhmu'". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
^"Khuen". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
^Hammarström (2015) Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: a comprehensive review: online appendices
^"Mon-Khmer Classification (Draft)".
^Diffloth, Gérard (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austroasiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon.
^ abSUWILAI Premsrirat, author. 2001. "Tonogenesis in Khmu dialects of SEA." Mon-Khmer Studies 31: 47–56.
^Suwilai, Premsrirat, et al. Mahidol University. Dictionary of Khmu in Laos.
^Premsrirat, Suwilai. 2002. Dictionary of Khmu in Laos. Mon-Khmer Studies, Special Publication, Number 1, Volume 3. Salaya, Thailand: Mahidol University.
^Suwilai, Prēmsīrat. The Thesaurus and Dictionary Series of Khmu Dialects in Southeast Asia. Nakorn Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, 2002. ISBN 9740501125
Thomas Khammeung Manokoune (Tamong)
Further reading
[edit]
Premsirat, Suwilai (1991). "Aspects Inter-Clausal Relations in Khmu". In Davidson, Jeremy H. C. S.; Shorto, H. L. (eds.). Austroasiatic Languages: Essays in Honour of H.L. Shorto. University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies. pp. 123–140. ISBN 0728601834. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. The Thesaurus and Dictionary Series of Khmu Dialects in Southeast Asia. Nakorn Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, 2002. ISBN 9740501125
Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. Khmu, a Minority Language of Thailand. Papers in South-East Asian linguistics, no. 10. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1987. ISBN 0-85883-365-4
Proschan, Frank. Kmhmu' Language and Language Policy: At Home and Abroad. s.l: s.n, 1995.
Proschan, Frank. Poetic Parallelism in Kmhmu Verbal Arts: From Texts to Performances. s.l: s.n, 1988.
Smalley, William Allen. Outline of Khmu structure. American Oriental series. Essay, v.2. New Haven, Conn: American Oriental Society, 1961.
Svantesson, Jan-Olof. Kammu Phonology and Morphology. Travaux de l'Institut de linguistique de Lund, 18. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1983. ISBN 91-40-04870-5
External links
[edit]
http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EA-B@view Khmu in RWAAI Digital Archive
Database of audio recordings in Khmu – basic Catholic prayers[permanent dead link]
v
t
e
Languages of Laos
Official language
Lao
Indigenouslanguages
Austroasiatic
Bahnaric
Alak
Duan
Halang
Jeh
Jru'
Juk
Laven
Lavi
Nyaheun
Oi
Sapuan
Sedang
Su'
Katuic
Bru
Brao
Katu
Kuy
Ta'Oi
Khmuic
Khmu
Mlabri
Phong-Kniang
Palaungic
Bit
Kiorr
Lamet
Vietic
Arem
Chut
Cuoi
Kri
Liha
Maleng
Nguồn
Thavung
Vietnamese
Austronesian
Cham
Western Cham
Hmong–Mien
Hmong
Iu Mien
Sino-Tibetan
Akeu
Akha
Bantang
Cantan
Cauho
Cosao
Hani
Luma
Phunoi
Piyo
Sinsali
Kra–Dai
Khün
Northern Thai
Phuan
Saek
Tai Daeng
Tai Dam
Tai Lue
Yoy
Main foreign languages
French
English
Sign languages
Laotian sign languages
Laos portal
v
t
e
Austroasiatic languages
Italics and followed by (Extinct) indicate extinct languages
Languages between parentheses and preceded by @ are varieties of the language on their left.
Bahnaric
North
Jeh
Halang
Kayong
Kacoʼ
Takua
Monom
Todrah
Sedang
Bahnar
Rengao
Hrê
Duan
Katua
West
Lavi
Jru'
Laven
Su'
Juk
Nyaheun
Sapuan
Oi
Brao
Central
Alak
Tariang
Tampuan
South
Chrau
Koho
Stieng
Raʼong
Mnong
Mel-Khaonh
Thmon
Others
Cua (@ East)
Katuic
West
Kuy
Bru
Katu
Katu
Phuong
Others
Pacoh
Ta'Oi
Vietic
Viet-Muong
Vietnamese
@ Northern, Thanh Hóa, Huế, Southern [vi]
@ in China [vi]
@ in the US
Mường
Nguồn
Chut
Arem
Mày
Ruc
Sach
Kri
Maleng
Kri
Thavưng
Phong–Liha
Phong
Liha
Others
Cuối
Khmuic
Phay-Pram
Prai
Mal
Ksingmul
Oʼdu
Phong-Kniang
Others
Khmu
Mlabri
Pearic
Pear
Western(Chong)
Central
Central Chong
Samre
Kasong
Southern
Suoi
Sa'och
Others
Somray (@ Northern Chong)
Western Chong
Khasi–Palaungic
Khasic
Khasi-Pnar-Lyngngam
Khasi
Pnar
Lyngngam
Maharam
Others
War
Palaungic
West
Palaung
Riang
East
Angkuic
Hu
U
Man Met
Mok
Muak
Va
Waic
Blang
Lawa
Wa
Meung Yum
Savaiq
Bit-Khang
Bit
Quảng Lâm
Kháng
Bumang
Lamet
Lamet
Kiorr
Others
Kuan
Danau
Tai Loi
Munda
North
Korku
Kherwarian
Mundaric
Korwa
Asur
Birjia
Birhor
Ho
Mundari
Koda
Majhwar
Turi
Agariya
Santalic
Santali
Kol
South
Sora-Gorum
Gorum
Sora
Juray
Lodhi
Gutob-Remo
Bonda
Gutob
Others
Gtaʼ
Juang
Kharia
Nicobarese
Car
Chaura-Teresa
Chaura
Teressa
Central
Nancowry
Camorta
Katchal
Southern
Southern Nicobarese
Shompen
Aslian
Jahaic (Northern)
Batek
Cheq Wong
Jahai
Jedek
Kensiu
Kintaq
Minriq
Mintil
Ten'edn
Wila'
Senoic (Central)
Lanoh
Sabüm (Extinct)
Semai
Semnam
Temiar
Semelaic (Southern)
Mah Meri
Semaq Beri
Semelai
Temoq
Others
Jah Hut
Kenaboi (Extinct) (unclassified; possibly a language isolate)
Laos portal