Water Margin - Wikipedia

One of the Chinese Classic Novels "Shui Hu Zhuan", "Outlaws of the Marsh", and "All Men are Brothers" redirect here. For other uses, see Shui Hu Zhuan (disambiguation). Water Margin

A page from a block-printed version of the novel Water Margin, brought to Copenhagen, Denmark in the early part of the 17th-century
Author	Shi Nai'an (subject to academic debate)
Translator	J. H. Jackson, Pearl S. Buck, Fang Lo-Tien (editor), Sidney Shapiro, Alex and John Dent-Young
Language	Written vernacular Chinese
Genre	Historical fiction
Set in	Mount Liang, c. 1120
Publication date	Uncertain, perhaps mid-14th century; definitely before 1524
Publication place	China
Published in English	71- and 100-chapter version: 1980120-chapter version: 1994–200271-chapter version: 2010
Dewey Decimal	895.1346
Original text	Water Margin at Chinese Wikisource

Water Margin
"Water Margin" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese	水滸傳
Simplified Chinese	水浒传
Literal meaning	"Water Margin Story"
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Shuǐhǔ zhuàn Wade–Giles Shui3-hu3 chuan4 IPA [ʂwèɪ.xù ʈʂwân] Wu Romanization Sy去 vhu平 tsuae平 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Séui-wú jyuhn Jyutping Seoi2-wu2 zyun6 IPA [sɵɥ˧˥.wu˧˥ tsyn˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Suí hóo tuān

Water Margin (simplified Chinese: 水浒传; traditional Chinese: 水滸傳; pinyin: Shuǐhǔ Zhuàn), also called Outlaws of the Marsh or All Men Are Brothers,[note 1] is a Chinese novel from the Ming dynasty that is one of the preeminent Classic Chinese Novels. Attributed to Shi Nai'an, Water Margin was one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin Chinese.[1]

Set during the Northern Song dynasty (around 1120), the story follows a group of 108 outlaws who gathers at Mount Liang (also known as Liangshan Marsh) to rebel against the government. Later they are granted amnesty and enlisted by the government to resist the nomadic conquest of the Liao dynasty and other rebels. While the book's authorship is traditionally attributed to Shi Nai'an (1296–1372), the first external reference to the novel only appeared in 1524 during the Jiajing reign of the Ming dynasty, sparking a long-lasting academic debate on when it was actually written and which historical events the author had witnessed that inspired him to write the book.[1]

The novel is considered one of the masterpieces of early vernacular fiction and Chinese literature.[2] It has introduced readers to some of the best-known characters in Chinese literature, such as Wu Song, Lin Chong, Pan Jinlian, Song Jiang and Lu Zhishen. Water Margin also exerted a significant influence on the development of fiction elsewhere in East Asia, such as on Japanese literature.[3][4]

Historical context and inspirations

[edit]

Water Margin is based on the exploits of the outlaw Song Jiang and his 107 companions; framed in the story as the incarnations of 108 demons representing 108 stars (the 36 "heavenly spirits" (三十六天罡) and the 72 "earthly demons" (七十二地煞)). The activities of Song Jiang's group were recorded in the historical text History of Song in the annals of Emperor Huizong of Song, which states:

(When) the outlaw Song Jiang of Huainan and others attacked the army at Huaiyang, (the Emperor) sent generals to attack and arrest them. (The outlaws) infringed on the east of the capital (Kaifeng), Henan, and entered the boundaries of Chu (referring to present-day Hubei and Hunan) and Haizhou (covering parts of present-day Jiangsu). The general Zhang Shuye was ordered to pacify them.[5]

Zhang Shuye's biography further describes the activities of Song Jiang and the other outlaws, and tells they were eventually defeated by Zhang.[6]

A precursor and blueprint of Water Margin is a compilation of folk tales titled as Old Incidents in the Xuanhe Period of the Great Song Dynasty (大宋宣和遺事), where it also inserts the story of the treacherous ministers of the Song dynasty who controlled the government and caused great suffering to the people. It also serves as a comparison for the story of the heroes of Liangshan.[7][8] If it is counted with Gong Kai's Praise of the Thirty-six Men of Song Jiang' from the same period, both works also mentioned the name of Yan Qing (one of the outlaw characters in Water Margin), as one of the thirty-six rebel leaders of Song Jiang's group.[9] Furthermore, the archetype for Yan Qing's personality in the novel was suspected to be derived from Liang Xing (梁興), a Song general who fought against the Jin Dynasty.[10]

Folk stories about Song Jiang circulated during the Southern Song. The first known source to name Song Jiang's 36 companions was Miscellaneous Observations from the Year of Guixin (癸辛雜識) by Zhou Mi, written in the 13th century. Among the 36 of Song Jiang's companions, there are names like Lu Junyi, Guan Sheng, Ruan Xiao'er, Ruan Xiaowu, Ruan Xiaoqi, Liu Tang, Hua Rong and Wu Yong. Some of the characters who later became associated with Song Jiang also appeared around this time. They include Sun Li, Yang Zhi, Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Wu Song.[11]

According to Ning Jiayu, a Chinese language professor at Nankai University, one theory suggests that Shi Jin was inspired by a real-life figure named Shi Bin (史斌), a rebel leader from Shanxi who lived during the early Southern Song dynasty and was a subordinate of Song Jiang in his early years.[12]

Another outlaw figure allegedly inspired by a real person was Xie Bao.[13] This theory relies on classical era records of Sanchao beimeng huibian (三朝北盟會編). In this narration, the real Xie Bao was a minor rebel leader from Jizhou during the early Southern Song (ca. 1129, Jianyan era). In response to this rebellion, emperor Gaozong sent Han Shizhong, talented general with promising career, who managed to suppress these rebels group which led by Xie Bao and others.[14] This raw historical kernel fueled speculation by modern Chinese historian and textual critic Wang Liqi (王利器) that the figure was the real life inspiration for the fictionalized Liang Shan bandit hero.[15] However, other Chinese historical critics like Wang Yu and Li Dianyuan were skeptical towards Wang Liqi's theory of this legend-history fusion for lacking supporting evidence to prove that the historical Xie Bao fled from Dengzhou to Jeju, as this conjencture could support the claim that the real life rebel was indeed the inspiration for the fictionalized Xie Bao.[13]

Fang La, one of the primary antagonists in Water Margin, was inspired by the real-life rebel of the same name.[16] His rebellion was linked to the spread of Manichaeism in China during Song dynasty.[17][18][19] The rebellion which started by Fang La was portrayed as a prototypical "heretical uprising" in Chinese historiography.[20]

Both the Jiajing reign of the Ming dynasty (1521–1568) and the closing years of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty (1360s) were marked by a chain of rebellions, which confused scholars a lot as to which of the two inspired the author, and hence when was the book written.[21]

According to Lu Xun, there was a large marshland at Mount Liang which existed since the Song dynasty, which served as inspiration for the base for Liangshan bandits.[22]

Plot

[edit]

The opening episode in the novel is the release of the 108 Spirits, imprisoned under an ancient stele-bearing tortoise.[23]

The next chapter describes the rise of Gao Qiu, one of the primary antagonists of the story. Gao abuses his status as a Grand Marshal by oppressing Wang Jin; Wang's father taught Gao a painful lesson when the latter was still a street-roaming ruffian. Wang Jin flees from the capital with his mother and by chance he meets Shi Jin, who becomes his apprentice. The next few chapters tell the story of Shi Jin's friend Lu Zhishen, followed by the story of Lu's sworn brother Lin Chong. Lin Chong is framed by Gao Qiu for attempting to assassinate him, and almost dies in a fire at a supply depot set by Gao's henchmen. He slays his foes and abandons the depot, eventually making his way to Liangshan Marsh, where he becomes an outlaw. Meanwhile, the "Original Seven", led by Chao Gai, rob a convoy of birthday gifts for the Imperial Tutor Cai Jing, another primary antagonist in the novel. They flee to Liangshan Marsh after defeating a group of soldiers sent by the authorities to arrest them, and settle there as outlaws with Chao Gai as their chief. As the story progresses, more people come to join the outlaw band, including military personnel and civil officials who grew tired of serving the corrupt government, as well as men with special skills and talents. Stories of the outlaws are told in separate sections in the following chapters. Connections between characters are vague, but the individual stories are eventually pieced together by chapter 60 when Song Jiang succeeds Chao Gai as the leader of the band after the latter is killed in a battle against the Zeng Family Fortress.

The plot further develops by illustrating the conflicts between the outlaws and the Song government after the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws. Song Jiang strongly advocates making peace with the government and seeking redress for the outlaws. After defeating the imperial army in a great battle at Liangshan Marsh, the outlaws eventually receive amnesty from Emperor Huizong. The emperor recruits them to form a military contingent and sends them on campaigns against invaders from the Liao dynasty and rebel forces led by Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La within the Song dynasty's domain. Although the former outlaws eventually emerge victorious against the rebels and Liao invaders, the campaigns also lead to the tragic dissolution of the 108 heroes. At least two-thirds of them die in battle while the surviving ones either return to the imperial capital to receive honours from the emperor and continue serving the Song government, or leave and spend the rest of their lives as commoners elsewhere. Song Jiang himself is eventually poisoned to death by the "Four Treacherous Ministers" – Gao Qiu, Yang Jian, Tong Guan and Cai Jing.

Characters

[edit] Main article: List of Water Margin characters

The 108 Heroes (一百单八将) are at the core of the plot of Water Margin. Based on the Taoist concept that each person's destiny is tied to a "Star of Destiny" (宿星), the 108 Stars of Destiny are stars representing 108 demonic overlords who were banished by the deity Shangdi. Having repented since their expulsion, the 108 Stars are accidentally released from their place of confinement, and are reborn in the world as 108 heroes who band together for the cause of justice. They are divided into the 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly Fiends.

Chapters

[edit]

This outline of chapters is based on a 100 chapters edition. Yang Dingjian's 120 chapters edition includes other campaigns of the outlaws on behalf of Song dynasty, while Jin Shengtan's 70 chapters edition omits the chapters on the outlaws' acceptance of amnesty and subsequent campaigns.

Chapter(s)	Main events
1	Marshal Hong releases the 108 spirits
2	The rise of Gao Qiu
2–3	The story of Shi Jin
3–7	The story of Lu Zhishen
7–12	The story of Lin Chong
12–13	The story of Yang Zhi
13–20	The stealing of the birthday gifts by the "Original Seven"
20–22	The story of Song Jiang
23–32	The story of Wu Song
32–35	The story of Hua Rong
36–43	Song Jiang's encounters in Jiangzhou
44–47	The story of Shi Xiu and Yang Xiong
47–50	The three assaults on the Zhu Family Village
51–52	The story of Lei Heng and Zhu Tong
53–55	The outlaws' attack on Gaotangzhou; the search for Gongsun Sheng
55–57	The first imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Huyan Zhuo)
57–59	The outlaws' attack on Qingzhou; Huyan Zhuo's defection to Liangshan
59–60	The outlaws, led by Gongsun Sheng, attack Mount Mangdang
60	The first assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Village; the death of Chao Gai
60–67	The story of Lu Junyi; the outlaws attack Daming Prefecture; the second imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Guan Sheng)
67	Guan Sheng defects to Liangshan; The third imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Shan Tinggui and Wei Dingguo)
68	The second assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Fortress;
69–70	The outlaws attack Dongping and Dongchang prefectures
71–74	The Grand Assembly; the funny and lethal antics of Li Kui
75–78	Emperor Huizong offers amnesty for the first time; the fourth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Tong Guan)
78–80	The fifth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Gao Qiu)
81–82	The outlaws are granted amnesty
83–89	The Liangshan heroes attack the Liao invaders
90–99	The Liangshan heroes attack Fang La
100	The tragic dissolution of the Liangshan heroes

The extended version includes the Liangshan heroes' expeditions against the rebel leaders Tian Hu and Wang Qing prior to the campaign against Fang La.[24]

Reception

[edit]

Water Margin, praised as an early "masterpiece" of vernacular fiction,[25] is renowned for the "mastery and control" of its mood and tone.[25] The novel is also known for its use of vivid, humorous and especially racy language.[25] However, it has been denounced as "obscene" by various critics since the Ming dynasty.[26]

"These seduction cases are the hardest of all. There are five conditions that have to be met before you can succeed. First, you have to be as handsome as Pan An. Second, you need a tool as big as a donkey's. Third, you must be as rich as Deng Tong. Fourth, you must be as forbearing as a needle plying through cotton wool. Fifth, you've got to spend time. It can be done only if you meet these five requirements."

"Frankly, I think I do. First, while I'm far from a Pan An, I still can get by. Second, I've had a big cock since childhood."

— Excerpt from the novel, translated by Sidney Shapiro[27]

According to Xu Yongqiang of the School of Humanities at Xi'an University of Electronic Science and Technology, there have been approximately 50 monographic series and over 1,000 research and analysis works on the Water Margin from the Ming and Qing dynasties to the present-day, demonstrating its immense influence and establishing "Water Margin Studies" as a prominent discipline of study.[28]

Some of the 108 outlaws internal dynamics exemplifies a key narrative style in Water Margin: strategic juxtaposition of contrasting personalities to heighten dramatic tension. As example, Shi Xiu's meticulous nature stands in sharp relief against Yang Xiong's rough-hewn demeanor, a pairing that underscores their differences and enriches the storytelling. This approach is a hallmark of the novel, evident in other pairings such as the forbearing Lin Chong and the bold Lu Zhishen, or the refined Song Jiang and the blunt Li Kui. Over time, such contrasts have evolved into a longstanding convention in literary expression. These subunits typically feature concise plots and limited casts of characters; the Yang Xiong and Shi Xiu subunit, spanning chapters 44 through 46, exemplifies this with its tightly knit episodes—the brothers' sworn alliance, the wife's infidelity, Shi Xiu's killing of his sister-in-law, and their eventual flight to Liangshan. Far from a mere linear progression, this subtheme employs deliberate alignments and transformations between units and subunits.[29]

Sinologist Lois M. Fusek also framed the parallel between Water Margin, which is revolutionary, glorifying bandits as divinely ordained agents of change; with the novel The Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt, which tone more reformist and traditional, deriding such figures—depicted as humble peddlers like noodle-vendors and cake-sellers—as absurd pretenders to heavenly mandate. This mockery underscores a pro-establishment stance, emphasizing swift suppression. Other than that, the temporal momentum complements spatial allusions of Three Suis with Water Margin's iconic locales and archetypes creates a satirical mirror-world between those two novels.[30]

Themes

[edit]

Religion

[edit]

The motif of pairings between 36 and 72 stars, possibly inspired from Dipper, were common among Chinese mythologies and folk tales, including Water Margin, which represented by the number of its protagonists.[31] The religious theme of these 108 demons that incarnated into the 108 Liangshan bandits apparently drew inspiration from the 36 heavenly spirits and 72 earth fiends that also appeared in a later Chinese vernacular novel titled Investiture of the Gods. In that novel, the 108 demons were gathered by Jiang Taigong to fight against King Zhou of Shang.[32] Liu Ts'un-yan added that the motif of 108 stars (36 spirits and 72 fiends representatives) constellation which appeared in both works were influenced by Buddhism and Taoism.[33]

Others analyzed Li Kui, one of the most savage Liangshan bandit characters, in more religious aspects, by quoting from the words of Luo Zhenren (a Taoist immortal in the novel who comments on the characters' fates) and a famous line from Laozi's Tao Te Ching (chapter 5): "天地不仁，以万物为刍狗 ("Heaven and Earth are impartial and treat all beings as disposable "straw dogs" used in rituals"). This portrays the spiritual character of Li Kui as being representative of the chaotic force of nature, blending divine indifference with animalistic instincts.[34][35]

Furthermore, both Victor Purcell[36] and Joseph W. Esherick have recorded that Water Margin—along with The Romance of the Three kingdoms and Investiture of the Gods— were quite influential for the religious Belief of the radical Boxer movement in shaping their ideology,[37] which became the reason for Qing government to ban the novel in 1799.[36]

Tao Chengzhang (d. 1911) attributed the surge of religious movements like the White Lotus Societies in north China and the Heaven and the Earth Society in the south was due to the influences of the novels Investiture of the Gods and Water Margin respectively. He writes: "Throughout the area of Shandong, Shanxi and Henan [that is, the north] there is no one who does not believe [zunxin] in the Investiture of the Gods story. Throughout the area of Jiangsu, Zhe-jiang, Fujian and Guangzhou [the south] there is no one who does not venerate [chongbai] the book, Water Margin".[38]

In the novel, the Liangshan bandits patronized the goddess Jiutian Xuannü (九天玄女 lit. "Mystic Goddess of the Ninth Heaven"), who instructed Song Jiang and his group to adhere the Taoism ethics on sexual desire.[39] The physical appearance of the goddess has been described in a poem that appears in the Rongyu Tang (容與堂) edition[40] and the 100-chapter version of the novel with Li Zhi's commentary.[41]

In Ming dynasty (1368–1644), lesser-known female deities surpassed the elite Queen Mother of the West in vernacular novels like Water Margin and Investiture of the Gods. Rooted in Chinese folk religion, likely inspiring syncretic sectarian icons such as the Venerable Mother Guanyin. This interplay of literature and belief idealized transcendent feminine archetypes, while exposing era-specific tensions around embodied womanhood. The narrative democratized goddess worship via accessible epics—rebellion in Water Margin's bandits and cosmic wars in Investiture's divinities—infused with maternal authority. The 16th-century Eternal Mother from White Lotus writings fused folk piety with millenarianism. As Daniel L. Overmyer observes, northerners canonization of Investiture of the Gods and southerners veneration of Water Margin, illustrates their symbiotic role in faith: a subversive tool empowering the illiterate through heroic divinity. These "post-menopausal" goddesses embody pure motherliness—nurturing wisdom without childbirth's mess or sexual desire's pitfalls—aligning with Confucian purity yet excising femininity's "negatives" like vulnerability and passion. However, this desexualized ideal reinforces gender binaries, reflecting Ming anxieties over female sexuality amid orthodoxy-heterodoxy clashes.[42]

Politics

[edit]

History and literature critic Shang Wei viewed Water Margin as a one of a kind novel which concerned about people's history ("petty history"), dynastic cycle topics, and among many others.[43]

According to Li Shi (1471–1538), the authorial rationale behind the counterfactual victory of the Southern Song over the Liao at the end of the novel stems from the patriotic motivations of the novel's alleged authors, Shi Nai'an and Luo Guanzhong—both of whom lived during the Yuan dynasty.[45] Furthermore, Water Margin is politically influential throughout the following China's history, from the rebellion of Zhang Xianzhong;[46] the Tiandihui adoption of the novel as their movement's guideline;[47] late Qing/Republican eras recast as patriotic literature; to the 1970s Cultural Revolution vilification of Song's "capitulationism" via revised editions for factional purges.[48]

Some argue that the novel's theme of revolt against authority became popular during turbulent times of the Ming dynasty, others argue that Water Margin became popular during the Yuan as the common people (predominantly Han Chinese) resented the Mongol rulers.[21] Chongzhen Emperor of the Ming dynasty, acting on the advice of his ministers, banned the book.[49] Chen Chen, a Ming loyalist, saw the novel as an expression of Song resistance to the Mongol invaders in the Yuan dynasty.[48]

The tremendous influence of the novel on late Ming peasant rebellions also noteworthy.[50][51] Historian James Bunyan Parsons argues that Water Margin may have had some influence on Zhang Xianzhong's rebellion. Based on Parsons' hypothesis, Mark R. E. Meulenbeld points out that Zhang Xianzhong was recorded using the novels as a source for emulation, as he quoted an early Qing observer who ascribes Zhang's fondness with the novel, "The shrewdness of Zhang Xianzhong included him making people read books like Three Kingdoms and Water Margin every day..."[46] It was attested by citation from Perry Link, that during the end of Ming dynasty period, rebels in Hebei used slogans such as "killing the rich to help the poor" and "carrying out the Dao on behalf of Heaven", which were popularized by both Water Margin and Romance of the Three Kingdoms as a form of "remedial protest".[52]

Zuo Maodi (左懋第) (1601–1645), a Ming dynasty vice minister of war, viewed the Water Margin as a book that taught people to be criminals. He believed that if the book was not banned, it would impact the societal atmosphere negatively. The court accepted his suggestion and banned the book for a time.[53]

The Jurchen chief and Khan Nurhaci learned Chinese military and political strategies from Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin.[54][55]

Yu Wanchun instead gave his negative assessment as he saw its polemical tone and encouragement of brigandage and revolt as a potential threat to the state.[48] Late Ming dynasty scholar Jin Shengtan criticized Shi Nai'an as not motivated by traditional scholarly venting resentment through writing but as a way of leisure.[56] Jin also questioned the inconsistency of Song Jiang's characterization according to Confucian morality.[57]

In the aftermath of Qing dynasty's literary inquisition by Qianlong emperor, the novel saw another boom of mass popularity and a wave of massive publications followed. This attracted the concern of a Qing official named Ding Richang, who pointed out its polemical social effect, although he did not outright pursue banning the book.[58]

The ethics of outlaw loyalty permeated even the Post-1853 grand Taiping Heavenly Kingdom shifted toward Water Margin-inspired ethics, emphasizing blind loyalty to leaders and "yi"-style camaraderie. This suggests a tactical evolution from religious millenarianism to pragmatic, bandito-like solidarity, blending ancient monarchical fealty with subversive brotherhood.[47] According to Frederic Wakeman, the fraternal hierarchy which formed by Taiping leaders such as Heavenly King Hong Xiuquan, East King Yang Xiuqing, North King Wei Changhui, and Wing King Shi Dakai was partly modelled on the brotherhood of the Liangshan outlaws from the novel.[59] Graciela de la Lama stated that the main concept of the politico-literary "model" which was borrowed by the Taipings was the concepts of "Loyalty and Fraternity" (忠義) which was followed by the Liangshan outlaws in the book.[60]

Elizabeth J. Perry investigation with Anhui University scholars has concluded that the Nian Rebellion's slogan banner, "Preparing the Way for Heaven, killing the rich to relieve the poor; Alliance Leader of the Great Chinese, Chang", which borrowed from the White Lotus sect, was obviously inspired by the Water Margin, emulating the outlaw heroes of Liangshan.[61][62]

The Baguadao sect used banners with the inscription "Entrusted by Heaven to Prepare the Way" during Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813, a reference to the Water Margin novel.[63]

Meanwhile, in the early-modern era, Water Margin has long and broad influence beyond its narrative as the inspiration for various subversive movements. The Triad (organized crime), enigmatic fraternal orders which were born in the Qing era's underbelly as a subversive force, blended messianic zeal (e.g., their slogan "Oppose the Qing and restore the Ming") with demonological rituals for political legitimacy. Their adoption of Water Margin's "yi" (unquestioning comradeship) rejects Confucian norms of duty and righteousness, positioning them as outlaw heroes. This unorthodoxy, combined with ritualistic elements, frames them as agents of political rebellion rather than mere criminals.[47]

Furthermore, Chinese revolutionary figure Song Jiaoren (1882–1913) idealizes the "heroes of the forest" (bandit archetypes from Water Margin) as embodying Robin Hood-esque justice and chivalry. Despite critiquing their criminality and foreign alliances, he invokes ethnic Han solidarity ("fellow descendants of our Yellow Emperor") to humanize them, using the novel as a lens for nationalist empathy.[47] Novelist Zhang Henshui felt that Water Margin's emphasis on the patriotism as Liangshan outlaws join Song government troops against the Jin invaders, could inspire anti-Japanese feeling among the Chinese living in Shanghai.[64]

Secret societies and criminal organizations during the Republic era also adopted code like Water Margin's martial fraternity, such as the Green Gang From Shanghai[65][66][67] and the Blue Shirts Society, an unofficial secret police of the Chiang Kai-shek regime. One of the Blue Shirts founding members, Dai Li, developed the organization based on the value of heroism and outlaw martial artists of the Water Margin, where the recruits drawn from the lower strata of society: jugglers, wrestlers, itinerant entertainers, journeymen traders, jailers, executioners, thieves, and gangsters.[68]

Water Margin also found its legs in the history of Chinese Communist Party, where the novel enjoyed the party's endorsement since the 1930s for their political aim.[69] Liu Kwang-ching even noted that Water Margin was one of Mao Zedong's favorite readings.[47] European sinologists Roderick MacFarquhar and Michael Schoenhals noted the influence of Water Margin in the political dynamic after the Cultural Revolution in China, where in the mid-1970s the radical Gang of Four failed to use propaganda tactics against the moderate reformer Deng Xiaoping; where the Gang of Four weaponized literature in political purges. In particular, the radicals attempted to make a comparison of Deng to Song Jiang. Their jargon of "Criticize Water Margin, denounce Song Jiang" campaign unfurled across winter 1975–76 university walls in a blizzard of big-character posters. Song Jiang, the Liangshan chieftain whose revolt ends in treacherous capitulation to imperial pardon, stood accused as similar to Deng's as an opportunist defeatist. However, the allusion campaign of the Gang of Four backfired as Mao Zedong's appreciation of the Water Margin story led him to favor Deng, as he drew the conclusion that the fictional surrender of the Liangshan bandits towards the government was a litmus for real-world fidelity; thus ending with Deng Xiaoping emerging victorious from the political struggle.[70] Mao had a change of heart in late 1973 when he started to distance himself from the allegorical campaigns and see the act of Song Jiang's capitulation negatively. Deng was quick to take note and shifted the gears of his campaign in August 1975 into criticizing the rightist revisionism in line with Mao's vision. Meanwhile, his rivals, the aforementioned Gang of Four continued with their campaign, this time focusing their energy to criticize Lin Biao and Confucius, failing to understand about Mao's change of mind.[71]

Another reason for Mao's suddenly announced Shui Hu Zhuan pi pan (水滸傳 批判), or Criticism of the Water Margin, in 1973 was a move to curtail the possibility of armed coup by Lin Biao's faction. As Mao said, "The rebels in Water Margin fought against dishonest officials but did not oppose the emperor. Later they capitulated. Take note, revisionism may emerge in China."[72]

Social

[edit]

There are two major social themes in Water Margin. The first one is yi (義), or "unquestioned loyalty",[47] a moral code which Andrew H. Plaks translated as "good," "valor," "honor," "generosity," or "nobility".[73] According to Catherine Vance Yeh, its more complete form is zhong yi (忠義), which translated as "unperturbed by love". This means the Youxia (Chinese knight-errant) motif in Water Margin expected one to focus on male bonding and unmoved by romance or sex.[74] Li Wenzhi concluded in his book, Popular revolts of the late Ming, that the concept of yi which was supposed to be a regulatory code for the bandit chieftains, rebel and secret society leaders swore brotherhood together.[52]

The second one is hǎo hàn (好漢),[75][76] an antinomianism masculinity moral code. The hǎo hàn code values freedom and brotherhood above everything else, Even if it means one should sacrifice his own wife and children. Portrayals of female hǎo hàn also existed in the novel, but they are often depicted as bloodthirsty as their male counterparts.[77] John Christopher Hamm encapsulated the polemic of Water Margin's ambiguous response from society for its youxia and hǎo hàn themes, as shown by Jin Shengtan's begrudging admiration yet deconstructive commentary; Chen Chen's 1664 version of sequel (Shuihu Houzhuan); and Yu Wanchun's version of sequel (Dangkou zhi).[48] Scholar Pang Zengyu viewed it as "greenwood heroes" (lùlín háojié 綠林豪傑) ethic—a code of companionship and justice immortalized within Chinese, Russian, and Korean settlers amid imperial decline and colonial flux; such theme infused Manchurian folklore with a moral code that distinguished noble hao han (real men) from ignoble tufei (dirt robbers). Thus, lecturer Ed Pulford extends this transnationality, paralleling Liangshan's bandit-iconization with Slavic analogs such as the molodets ("fine young lad") who opposed Tsar Ivan the Terrible in the 16th-century ballads, as per Maureen Perrie; or the Hajduks, the Haydamaks, and the Druzhinas.[78]

Susan L. Mann writes that the "desire for male camaraderie" is "far from a mere plotline," for it is a basic theme of this and other classic novels. She places the novel's male characters in a tradition of men's culture of mutual trust and reciprocal obligation, such as figures known as the Chinese knight-errant. In this regard, she quoted the words of Sima Qian, the Han dynasty historian, devoted a section to biographies: "Their words were always sincere and trustworthy, and their actions always quick and decisive. They were always true to what they promised, and without regard to their own persons, they would rush into dangers threatening others." She finds such figures in this and other novels, such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Journey to the West, all of which dramatized the "empathic emotional attraction between men who appreciate and play off against one another's complementary qualities."[79]

Licentious and treacherous women are another recurring theme. Modern critics have debated whether Water Margin is misogynistic.[80][81][82] Most beautiful women in the novel are depicted as immoral and cruel, and they are often involved in schemes against the protagonists. Among them is Pan Jinlian, the sister-in-law of Wu Song, who has later become an archetypal femme fatale and one of the most notorious villainesses of Chinese culture. On the other hand, the few "good" women in the story, like Sun Erniang and Gu Dasao, are not particularly noted for their beauty, or are even described as being plain or ugly. The leader of the outlaws, Song Jiang admonishes: "Any outlaw that meddles with women is contemptible."[83]

Critics offer various explanations for Water Margin's prejudice against women. Most common among modern Chinese critics is the patriarchal society of the Imperial China.[84][85] Sun Shuyu of The Chinese University of Hong Kong argues that the author(s) of Water Margin intentionally vilified women in order to discipline their would-be-outlaw audiences.[86]

The novel is notable for its gruesome and often gory and excessive depictions of violence. Some of the protagonists of the novel engage in "wanton killing, excessive retribution, and various forms of cannibalism. When celebrating a victory, they sometimes "share their enemies' flesh piece by piece, an action combining cannibalism with lingchi", the slow slicing of somebody to death.[87] This type of violent imagery in the novel is mentioned in a "causal tone", with human flesh being eaten not just "in acts of revenge", but also "as a way of living".[88] Noting that the outlaws celebrated in the novel were nevertheless widely regarded as "heroes and heroines" over centuries, educator William Sin states that one cannot divide "the meanings of [their] actions" from "the cultural background under which they [were] performed" and that it would be "hasty" to project concepts and values of today "onto the situation of a distant culture" where they may not have applied.[89]

Liu Zaifu decries the novel as cultural poison, arguing that Water Margin, together with Romance of the Three Kingdoms, has sown people's "moral downfall".[90] There is also a popular anecdotal quip in China which says, "The young should not read The Water Margin while the old should not read The Romance of the Three Kingdoms", criticizing its violent and machismo effects on young male audiences.[69] By the late 19th century, the reformer Liang Qichao criticized Water Margin along with another novel, Dream of the Red Chamber as "incitement to robbery and lust".[91] Liangyan Ge called it a novel "full of scenes of brutality and sadism, representing only one extremity of Chinese culture".[92]

Lu Xun felt disturbed with the scale of brutality shown in the novel, in particular, by Li Kui.[93][94] However, being a seemingly simple-minded yet popular character, there are numerous studies for how his personality is shown in the novel. Li Kui is considered as a representative of the peasant classes' real-world struggles, highlighting class conflict in a feudal society. Most people believe Li Kui is a person with incomplete mental faculties leading to psychological distortion, while some see him as a subversive anti-hero in the novel's later arcs, where the outlaws debate surrendering to the government. His alleged "madness" masks deep wisdom and resistance, making him a "wise fool" (智若愚, appearing foolish but profoundly insightful)—a trope in literature where apparent stupidity hides truth-telling.[34][35]

Authorship

[edit]

While the book's authorship is attributed to Shi Nai'an (1296–1372), there is an extensive academic debate on what historical events the author had witnessed that inspired him to write the book, which forms a wider debate on when the book was written.[1] The first external reference of this book, which dated to 1524 during a discussion among Ming dynasty officials, is a reliable evidence because it presents strong falsifiability.[1] Other scholars put the date to the mid-14th century, sometime between the fall of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty and the early Ming dynasty.[1]

Since fiction was not at first a prestigious genre in the Chinese literary world, authorship of early novels was often not carefully attributed and may be unknowable. The authorship of Water Margin is still in some sense uncertain, and the text in any case derived from many sources and involved many editorial hands. While the novel was traditionally attributed to Shi Nai'an, of whose life not much is reliably known, recent scholars think that the novel, or portions of it, may have been written or revised by Luo Guanzhong (the author of Romance of the Three Kingdoms).[95]

Shi Nai'an

[edit]

Many scholars believe that the first 70 chapters were indeed written by Shi Nai'an; however the authorship of the final 30 chapters is often questioned, with some speculating that it was instead written by Luo Guanzhong, who may have been a student of Shi.[95] Another theory, which first appeared in Gao Ru's Baichuan Shuzhi (百川書志) during the Ming dynasty, suggests that the whole novel was written and compiled by Shi, and then edited by Luo.

Shi drew from oral and written texts that had accumulated over time. Stories of the Liangshan outlaws first appeared in Old incidents in the Xuanhe period of the great Song dynasty (大宋宣和遺事) and had been circulating since the Southern Song dynasty, while folk tales and opera related to Water Margin have already existed long before the novel itself came into existence. This theory suggests that Shi Nai'an gathered and compiled these pieces of information to write Water Margin.

Luo Guanzhong

[edit]

Some believe that Water Margin was written entirely by Luo Guanzhong. Wang Daokun (汪道昆), who lived during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor in the Ming dynasty, first mentioned in Classification of Water Margin (水滸傳敘) that: "someone with the family name Luo, who was a native of Wuyue (Yue (a reference to the southern China region covering Zhejiang), wrote the 100-chapter novel." Several scholars from the Ming and Qing dynasties, after Wang Daokun's time, also said that Luo was the author of Water Margin. During the early Republican era, Lu Xun and Yu Pingbo suggested that the simplified edition of Water Margin was written by Luo, while the traditional version was by Shi Nai'an.[citation needed]

However, Huikang Yesou (惠康野叟) in Shi Yu (識餘) disagree with Wang Daokun's view on the grounds that there were significant differences between Water Margin and Romance of the Three Kingdoms, therefore these two novels could not have been written by the same person.

Hu Shih felt that the draft of Water Margin was done by Luo Guanzhong, and could have contained the chapters on the outlaws' campaigns against Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La, but not invaders from the Liao dynasty.[96]

Shi Hui

[edit]

Another candidate is Shi Hui (施惠), a nanxi (southern opera) playwright who lived between the late Yuan dynasty and early Ming dynasty. Xu Fuzuo (徐復祚) of the Ming dynasty mentioned in Sanjia Cunlao Weitan (三家村老委談) that Junmei (君美; Shi Hui's courtesy name)'s intention in writing Water Margin was to entertain people, and not to convey any message. During the Qing dynasty, Shi Hui and Shi Nai'an were linked, suggesting that they are actually the same person. An unnamed writer wrote in Chuanqi Huikao Biaomu (傳奇會考標目) that Shi Nai'an's given name was actually "Hui", courtesy name "Juncheng" (君承), and he was a native of Hangzhou. Sun Kaidi (孫楷第) also wrote in Bibliography of Chinese Popular Fiction that "Nai'an" was Shi Hui's pseudonym. Later studies revealed that Water Margin contained lines in the Jiangsu and Zhejiang variety of Chinese, and that You Gui Ji (幽闺记), a work of Shi Hui, bore some resemblance to Water Margin, hence the theory that Water Margin was authored by Shi Hui.[citation needed]

Guo Xun

[edit]

Early scholars attributed the authorship to Guo Xun (郭勛), a politician who lived in the Ming dynasty. Shen Defu (沈德符), a late Ming dynasty scholar, mentioned in Wanli Yehuo Bian (萬曆野獲編) that Guo wrote Water Margin. Shen Guoyuan (沈國元) added in Huangming Congxin Lu (皇明從信錄) that Guo mimicked the writing styles of Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin to write Guochao Yinglie Ji (國朝英烈記). Qian Xiyan (錢希言) also stated in Xi Gu (戲嘏) that Guo edited Water Margin before. Hu Shih countered in his Research on Water Margin (水滸傳新考) that Guo Xun's name was used as a disguise for the real author of Water Margin. Dai Bufan (戴不凡) had a differing view, as he suspected that Guo wrote Water Margin, and then used "Shi Nai'an" to conceal his identity as the author of the novel.[97]

Editions and translations

[edit]

Evolution of Water Margin editions[98]: 13

Water Margin original edition Elaborate Original edition Simple Original edition Capital edition Chronicle of Loyalty and Righteousness Jiajing Fragmentary edition Rongyu Hall edition Zhongde Book Hall edition Shiqu Pavilion Supplementary Print edition Zhong Bojing edition Three Great Bandits edition Daduo Yuren Preface edition (Li Xuanbo Original Collection, Mustard Seed Garden, Sanduo Studio) Illustrated Augmented edition Pinglin edition, First/Second Carving Heroes' Register 120 Chapters edition (Complete Biography, Complete Book) Liu Xingwo edition 70 Chapters edition (Jin Shengtan Commentary, Wang Wangru Commentary, Juqu Waishi Preface) 30 Volumes edition (Baohan Tower, Yingxue Thatched Hall) Liguan Hall edition Munich edition Li Yu Preface edition 10 Volumes edition Han-Song Rare Books edition (Wenyuan Hall, Qinxian Hall) Campaign Against Four Bandits edition 124 Chapters edition 8 Volumes edition

The textual history of the novel is extraordinarily complex for there are early editions of varying lengths, different parts, and variations. The scholar Scott Gregory comments that the text could be freely altered by later editors and publishers who also could add prefaces or commentaries.[99] Not until the early 20th-century were there studies which began to set these questions in order, and there is still disagreement.[100] The earliest components of the Water Margin (in manuscript copies) were from the late 14th century. A printed copy dating from the Jiaqing reign (1507–1567) titled Jingben Zhongyi Zhuan (京本忠義傳), is preserved in the Shanghai Library.[101][102] The earliest extant complete printed edition of Water Margin is a 100-chapter version published in 1589.[103] An edition, with 120 chapters and an introduction by Yang Dingjian (楊定見), has been preserved from the reign of the Wanli Emperor (1573–1620) in the Ming dynasty. Yet other editions were published in the early Qing dynasty.

The most widely read version is a truncated recension published by Jin Shengtan in 1643, reprinted many times,[100] which became the standard text for later editions and most translations.[104] Jin provided three introductions that praised the novel as a work of genius and inserted commentaries into the text that explained how to read the novel. He cut matter that he thought irrelevant, reduced the number of chapters to 70 by turning chapter 1 into a prologue, and added an ending in which all 108 heroes are executed.[105]

The various editions can be classified into simplified and complex. The simplified editions, edited for less sophisticated audiences, can contain all the events but in less detail. There is no way of knowing whether a simplified edition came before or was derived from another by adding or cutting text.[105]

Simplified editions

[edit]

The simplified editions include stories on the outlaws being granted amnesty, followed by their campaigns against the Liao dynasty, Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La, all the way until Song Jiang's death. At one point, the later chapters were compiled into a separate novel, titled Sequel to Water Margin (續水滸傳), which is attributed to Luo Guanzhong.

Known simplified editions of Water Margin include:

• A 115-chapter edition, Masterpieces of the Han and Song dynasties (漢宋奇書)
• A 110-chapter edition, Chronicles of Heroes (英雄譜)
• A 164-chapter edition, combined with Sequel to Water Margin
• A 109-chapter edition, 2-Carved Heroes' Compendium
• A 124-chapter version, Daodao Tang Edition
• A 104-chapter edition, Water Margin Chronicles Commentary

Complex editions

[edit]

The complex editions are more descriptive and circulated more widely than their simplified counterparts. The three main versions of the complex editions are a 100-chapter, a 120-chapter and a 70-chapter edition. The most commonly modified parts of the complex editions are the stories on what happened after the outlaws are granted amnesty.

• 100-chapter edition: Includes the outlaws' campaigns against the Liao dynasty and Fang La after they have been granted amnesty.
• 120-chapter edition: An extended version of the 100-chapter edition, includes the outlaws' campaigns against Tian Hu and Wang Qing (chapters 91 to 110).
• 71-chapter edition: Edited by Jin Shengtan in the late Ming dynasty, this edition uses chapter 1 as a prologue and ends at chapter 71 of the original version, and does not include the stories about the outlaws being granted amnesty and their campaigns.
• There is another 120-chapter version known as Mei's Collection Water Margin. The first 70 chapters of this version are consistent with Jin Shengtan's Guanhuatang version, but the last 50 chapters are completely different from other versions. There is no plot of recruiting and Liangshan still fights against the government. There is controversy about the authenticity of the last 50 chapters of this version and the value of this version itself, with many people believing that the last 50 chapters were forged by Mei Jihe.

Non-English translations

[edit]

Water Margin has been translated into many languages. The book was translated into Manchu as Möllendorff: Sui hū bithe.[106] Japanese translations date back to at least 1757, when the first volume of an early Suikoden (Water Margin rendered in Japanese) was printed.[107] Other early adaptations include Takebe Ayakari's 1773 Japanese Water Margin (Honcho suikoden),[108] the 1783 Women's Water Margin (Onna suikoden),[109] and Santō Kyōden's 1801 Chushingura Water Margin (Chushingura suikoden).[110]

In 1805, Kyokutei Bakin released a Japanese translation of the Water Margin illustrated by Hokusai. The book, called the New Illustrated Edition of the Suikoden (Shinpen Suikogaden), was a success during the Edo period and spurred a Japanese "Suikoden" craze.

In 1827, publisher Kagaya Kichibei commissioned Utagawa Kuniyoshi to produce a series of woodblock prints illustrating the 108 heroes in Water Margin. The 1827–1830 series, called 108 Heroes of the Water Margin or Tsuzoku Suikoden goketsu hyakuhachinin no hitori, catapulted Kuniyoshi to fame. It also brought about a craze for multicoloured pictorial tattoos that covered the entire body from the neck to the mid-thigh.[111]

Following the great commercial success of the Kuniyoshi series, other ukiyo-e artists were commissioned to produce prints of the Water Margin heroes, which began to be shown as Japanese heroes rather than the original Chinese personages.

Among these later series was Yoshitoshi's 1866–1867 series of 50 designs in Chuban size, which are darker than Kuniyoshi's and feature strange ghosts and monsters.[112] A recent Japanese translation is Suikokuden 水滸伝. Translated by Yoshikawa Kojiro; Shimizu Shigeru. Iwanami Shoten. 16 October 1998.

The book was first translated into Thai in 1867, originally in Samud Thai (Thai paper book) format, consisting of 82 volumes in total. It was printed in western style in 1879 and distributed commercially by Dan Beach Bradley, an American Protestant missionary to Siam.

Jacques Dars translated the 70 chapter version into French in 1978, reprinted several times.[113]

English translations

[edit]

71-chapter version

[edit]

1. Pearl S. Buck was the first English translator of the entire 71-chapter version. Titled All Men are Brothers and published in 1933.[114] It was revised in 1937 including the Introduction/Foreword attributed to Shi Naian. The book was well received by the American public. However, it was also criticised for its errors, such as the mistranslation of Lu Zhishen's nickname "Flowery Monk" as "Priest Hua".[citation needed]
2. In 1937, another complete translation appeared, titled Water Margin, by J. H. Jackson, edited by Fang Lo-Tien.[115] A translation of Jin's Preface was published in 1935 by the Shanghai journal, The China Critic.[116].
3. The J. H. Jackson translation was revised, restored, and updated by Edward H. Lowe in 2009 and published by Tuttle Classics.

100-chapter version

[edit]

Later translations of the 71-chapter version include Chinese-naturalised scholar Sidney Shapiro's Outlaws of the Marsh (1980) that also does not include the verse. However, as it was published during the Cultural Revolution, this edition received little attention then.[117] It is a translation of a combination of both the 71-chapter and 100-chapter versions.

120-chapter version

[edit]

The most recent translation, titled The Marshes of Mount Liang (1994-2002), by Alex and John Dent-Young, is a five-volume translation of the 120-chapter version. It includes a prologue but omits the foreword by Shi Nai'an and some passages related to the official details of the Ming dynasty.[118]

Differences

[edit]

These translations differ in the selection of texts and completeness. The Jackson and the revised Buck translations of 1937 contain the foreword attributed to Shi Nai'an. The Shapiro translation omits the prologue, the foreword, and most of the poems. The Dent-Young translation omits the author's foreword and the passages concerning the Ming dynasty administration and the translators admitted to compromising some details and retaining inconsistencies in their Brief Note on the Translation.

Sequels and spinoffs

[edit]

There are several noteworthy direct sequels and spinoffs to the Water Margin. Some tell subsequent stories of the heroes fighting the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty, infighting of the heroes, or moving to Siam.[119][120]

Jin Ping Mei

[edit]

Jin Ping Mei is an erotic novel of manners written under the pen-name Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng (蘭陵笑笑生) ("The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling") in the latter half of the 16th century. The novel is framed as a spinoff of Water Margin based on the story of Wu Song avenging his brother in Water Margin, but the focus is on Ximen Qing's sexual relations with other women, including Pan Jinlian. The intervening sections, however, differ in almost every way from Water Margin.[121] In the course of the novel, Ximen has 19 sexual partners, including his six wives and mistresses, and a male servant.[122]

Pan Jinlian became an archetypal femme fatale and one of the most notorious villainesses of classical Chinese culture.[123] The influential author Lu Xun, writing in the 1920s, called it "the most famous of the novels of manners" of the Ming dynasty, and reported the opinion of the Ming dynasty critic, Yuan Hongdao, that it was "a classic second only to Water Margin." He added that the novel is "in effect a condemnation of the whole ruling class."[124] Pan Jinlian also appeared to be based on the false rumors a real namesake lady who had a sharply different personality. The reputation of real-life Pan Jinlian was badly affected by the fictional Pan Jinlian and this incident also caused a rift between Pan family and Shi family (the family of Shi Nai'an, author of Water Margin) for a long time until descendants of Shi family made an official apology in 2009.[125][126]

Shuihu Houzhuan

[edit]

A sequel to Water Margin titled Shuihu Houzhuan (水滸後傳) (The Later Story of Water Margin) that authored by Chen Chën [zh], a writer from the early era Qing dynasty and native of Zhejiang, was released In 1664.[127]: 155 [128]: 102 [129]

Shuihu Houzhuan comprises 40 chapters, organized into two parts. Its plot diverges somewhat from the original Water Margin. The first 30 chapters focus on the chaotic state of China, with the Liangshan heroes gradually assembling, reaching a total of 32 by the 29th chapter. The final 10 chapters depict the heroes' decision to journey to a foreign land, where they encounter a wise monarch and benevolent people, leading to a joyful conclusion.[127]: 156  Shuihu Houzhuan also introduces new characters such as Hua Rong's son Hua Fengchun (花逢春), Xu Ning's son Xu Sheng (徐晟) and Huyan Zhuo's son Huyan Yu (呼延鈺).[129]

Plot

[edit]

The story started with Ruan Xiaoqi, falsely accused of treason by corrupt officials Tong Guan and Cai Jing after wearing Fang La's discarded dragon robe. Returning to Shijie Village, he kills Cai Jing's ally Zhang Ganban and flees, joining former Liangshan heroes like Hu Cheng and Luan Tingyu in banditry.[127]: 155–156 

Meanwhile, Li Jun and seven others, disillusioned with China's chaos after the Northern Song's fall, sail to Siam (historical Thailand), conquer Jin'ao Island, and ally themselves with the royal family. Thirty-two surviving Liangshan heroes regroup in Shandong and Hebei and later join Li Jun in Siam during a siege.[127]: 155–156  In the chapter 35; Japan Borrows Troops, Sparking Conflict; Qingni Island Incites Rebellion and Mobilizes Forces", An army of 10,000 Japanese warriors embarked from Satsuma Domain and Ōsumi provinces aboard 300 warships to aid a usurper in Siam against the Liangshan heroes. The figure leading the Japanese army is called Kanpaku. The Kanpaku is depicted as eight shaku (approximately 2.4 meters) tall and riding an elephant. He also commands a naval warfare unit known as the 'Kurooni' (Black Ghosts). However, the entire army meets its end by freezing to death due to Gongsun Sheng's socery.[129] The Liangshan heroes manages to defeat the usurper Gong Tao, and Li Jun becomes the king of Siam.[127]: 155–156 

Later, Li Jun rescues Southern Song Emperor Gaozong, who pardons the heroes and recognizes Li Jun's rule. Under Li Jun, Siam adopts Chinese influences, and the 32 heroes marry and settle happily.[127]: 155–156 

Receptions and themes

[edit]

The author, Chen Chen, was known for his resentment towards the rule of Qing and joined the Jingyin Poetry society, together with many loyal to Ming like Gu Yanwu. Later, he published the sequel in 1664.[127]: 155  Chen Chen took the pen name "Yandang Shanqiao" and giving commentary for the published edition and claimed the original script was written by an anonymous "loyalist of Song" who lived during the early years of Yuan dynasty rule.[130]: 242 

According to Hu Shih, the theme of this sequel work reflects Chen Chen's grief and anger about the fall of Ming dynasty, which he analogizes with the fall of Northern Song to the Yuan dynasty, which is the backdrop era of the Water Margin story.[131]: 755、759、760  The novel also continues to promote the themes of loyalty and resistance to foreign aggression through rebellion. However, the methods of these reformed Liangshan heroes in Siam are very different from that of the original group, as they resorted to less violence, held family happiness in high regard and showed awareness of the importance of civil government system; which followed by setting their end goal in establishing a state in Siam. In the end, the work expresses the hopes, fears and resentment of the Ming loyalists, and the anti-Qing movement.[130]: 242–243 

Furthermore, the book's poems reveal the author's desire to establish a new utopia for Ming loyalists in a foreign land and may allude to their hopes for Zheng Chenggong's regime in Taiwan.[132]

Overall, Hu Shih does not rate this sequel work with high praise, with the exception of some of its chapters which stand out from others, such as "Zhongmu County's Elimination of Traitors" in volume 22. The book also described Yan Qing's visit to Emperor Huizong of Song , which was written in a sad and touching way, far surpassing the other chapters.[131]: 765、767  Sinologist Ellen Widmer believed that the literary value of the Shuihu Houzhuan was mixed and not enough to be included in the list of first-rate classics. The work directly influenced the 19th-century Japanese novel Chun Shuo Gong Zhang Yue by Takizawa Bakin.[132]

Hou Shuihu Zhuan

[edit]

A sequel novel titled Hou Shuihu Zhuan (後水滸傳; Water Margin Transmission), attributed to the pseudonymous author "Master of the Blue Lotus Chamber" (Qing Lian Shi Zhu Ren, 青蓮室主人) was written during the 17th century, and it spans 45 chapters across 10 volumes and was first printed in the Qianlong era (1736–1795) by Su Zheng Tang (素政堂).

Dang Kou Zhi

[edit]

Dang Kou Zhi (蕩寇志 The Tale of Eliminating Bandits), which also known for its alternate title Jie shuihu quanzhuan (結水滸全傳 Terminating the Complete Saga of the Water Margin)[75], is a novel written by Qing dynasty novelist Yu Wanchun [zh] (俞萬春) during the reign of the Daoguang Emperor. The story follows the end of original Water Margin runs im chapter 70. The book runs from Chapter 71 to Chapter 140, totaling 70 chapters, with a concluding chapter titled "The Conclusion to the Son".[133] It took him 22 years to complete the book.[134]

Yu Wanchun disagreed that the Liangshan outlaws are loyal and righteous heroes, and was determined to portray them as ruthless mass murderers and destroyers, hence he wrote Dang Kou Zhi. As a result, he portrays the Liangshan outlaws here as the antagonists, only to be eliminated by the designated protagonists.[135]

The protagonist of this novel is Chen Xizhen, a Taoist and martial arts master who turned outlaw, and ended opposing the Liangshan outlaws led by Song Jian.[135][136][137] The novel, which starts at the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws at Liangshan Marsh, tells of how the outlaws plundered and pillaged cities before they are eventually eliminated by government forces led by Zhang Shuye [zh] (張叔夜) and his lieutenants Chen Xizhen (陳希真) and Yun Tianbiao (雲天彪).[133]

Due to its pro-establishment and anti-rebellion theme, this sequel was supported and endorsed by government of Qing. However, the Taiping rebels disliked the nuance of the novel and ordered the burning of the book in every place they occupied.[138][134] Water Margin may also have inspired the novel Ernü Yingxiong Zhuan.[75]

Fictional stories about Yue Fei

[edit]

Some spinoffs of Water Margin were intertwined with Song General Yue Fei.[citation needed]

Chapters 31 to 45 of Hou Shuihu Zhuan novel depicted general Yue Fei, portrayed as a divine general, suppresses the rebels at Caibo Bridge. Defeated, the heroes ascend to heaven, enlightened by a karmic epilogue emphasizing redemption through reincarnation.[139]

The Qing dynasty writer Qian Cai wrote the life story of Yue Fei and the outlaws Lin Chong and Lu Junyi in a Sin off story titled novel written by Qian Cai titled General Yue Fei (Chinese: 說岳全傳) (1684), which consisted of 80 chapters, stated that the latter were former students of the general's martial arts tutor, Zhou Tong.[140] However, literary critic C. T. Hsia commented that the connection was a fictional one created by the author.[141] Additionally, the novla mentions about the partiicipation of one of the Liangshan outlaws, Huyan Zhuo, in a campaign under the lead of Yue Fei defending against thr invasion by the Jin dynasty. The novel tell the death of Huyan Zhuo on the hands of a Jin prince, Wuzhu, amid combat.[142]

The Republican era folktale Swordplay Under the Moon, by Wang Shaotang, further intertwines Yue Fei's history with the outlaws by adding Wu Song to the list of Zhou's former students.[143] The tale is set in the background of Wu Song's mission to Kaifeng, prior to the murder of his brother. Zhou tutors Wu in the "rolling dragon" style of swordplay during his one-month stay in the capital city. It also said that Zhou is a sworn brother of Lu Zhishen and shares the same nickname with the executioner-turned-outlaw Cai Fu.[144]

More Modern literary fictional biography that linked Zhou Tong with the Liangshan outlaws was Iron Arm, Golden Sabre novel in 1986, a Modern novel prequel to The Story of Yue Fei.[citation needed] This novel later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua-style comic book called The Legend of Zhou Tong in 1987.[145]

Can Shui Hu

[edit]

A sequel novel which titled Can Shui Hu, or Remnant Water Margin (殘水滸), was written by Cheng Shanzhi [zh] (pen name of Cheng Qingyu, 程慶餘; 1880–1942);[146] a novelist associated with the Southern Society (南社) literary group. It was serialized in 1933 in the New Jiangsu Daily (《新江蘇日報》) under the pseudonym "Yi Su" (一粟), and reprinted by Heilongjiang People's Publishing House in 1997. The novel exists and is a well-documented sequel to the 70-chapter edition of Water Margin. It composed 16 chapters that followed the original simple Water Margin version of 70 chapters, spanning from chapter 71 to 86.[citation needed]

The narrative picks up directly from Lu Junyi's prophetic nightmare, followed by the split of the Liangshan brotherhood due to ideological rifts. the leaders divide into two camps over the issue whether they should surrender to the government and seek pardon, or keep being outlaws. Lu Junyi's faction (pro-surrender) seeks alliance with Northern Song border general named Zong Shidao (種師道). Song Jiang's faction, which composed of 36 core members, refused the integration aspiration by Lu Junyi, and clinging to their autonomy as outlaws. Some of the Liangshan heroes fell during the ensuing civil war, such as Li Kui's death by Hu Sanniang and Dong Ping's poisoning by Cheng Wanli's Daughter. After Liangshan's defeat, Song Jiang's faction flees to Haizhou (海州), where they are captured by Zhang Shuye (張叔夜), the historical Song general who subdued Song Jiang in 1121 (per History of Song). Lu's faction, honoring old bonds, petitions the court to spare Song's life—sparing execution but dooming the remnants to further tragedy. The book culminates in total annihilation: Surrenders lead to executions or exile, battles claim the rest, and Song Jiang is ultimately also implied being killed.[146]

With the exception of Zhang Shuye and Chen Xiuzhen (who also the protagonist of Dang Kou Zhi.[136]), there are not many notable new characters in this novel. Yet, the personality of certain legacy characters are given more focus, such as Song Jiang 's cunning and Wu Yong's wisdom. Chen Xizhen and his daughter, Chen Liqing, were persecuted by the government, particularly by Gao Qiu and Gao Yanei. Both father and daughter were forced to fled the capital. However, Chen Xizhen also hated the Liangshan heroes and refused to join them. Later, Chen Xizhen occupied a village and gathered people to start an uprising, until he accepted the amnesty and surrendered to the government. He joined forces with Zhang Shuye and others in the suppression of Liangshan outlaws, until they manage to eliminate the group.[135]

Chen Xizhen serves as the antithesis of Song Jiang and Liangshan outlaws, where despite having similar background with them as renegade of the state, he refused to join them, and even participated in the bandits' final elimination.[147] This reflects the contradictory and tangled psychology of Yu Wanchun, who was a fan of "Water Margin" and wanted to inherit Jin Shengtan 's ideas to attack the rebels.[147]

Influence and adaptations

[edit]

Literature

[edit]

It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of Chinese fiction and drama to the literary culture of early modern Japan. The rise to ubiquitous prominence of Chinese texts such as Shuihu zhuan, Xiyou ji (Journey to the West), and the short fiction of Feng Menglong (1574–1646) was a gradual occurrence.... From a certain vantage point, the Chinese novel Shuihu zhuan [Water Margin] is a ubiquitous presence in the literary and visual culture of early modern Japan. Indeed, Japanese engagement with Shuihu zhuan is nearly coeval with the establishment of Tokugawa hegemony itself, as evidenced by the presence of a 1594 edition of the novel in the library of the Tendai abbot and adviser to the fledgling Tokugawa regime, Tenkai. Tenkai's death in 1643 provides us with a lower limit for dating the novel's importation into Japan, demonstrating the remarkable rapidity with which certain Chinese texts found their way into Japanese libraries.

— William C. Hedberg on the influence of Water Margin on Japanese fiction[148][3]

Frank Chin's novel, Donald Duk, contains many references to the Water Margin. Song Jiang and Li Kui make several appearances in the protagonist's dreams.

Rise of the Water Margin[149] (水滸再起) is a novel launched in 2022 by the American author Christopher Bates in which all of the Chinese characters and their approximate character arcs are 21st century modernizations of people in The Water Margin. In this cyber-thriller, the characters of Lin Chong, Lu Da, Gao Qiu, Gao Yanei, Zhang Zhenniang, Fu An, Cai Jing, Chai Jin, Wang Lun, Zhu Gui, Zhao Ji, Li Shishi and many others appear. The location of Liangshanpo is a deserted ghost city known to its investors as Mount Liang Swamp, repurposed as a hacker enclave.

Eiji Yoshikawa wrote Shin Suikoden (新水滸伝), which roughly translates to "New Tales from the Water Margin".

The Water Outlaws, a novel by S. L. Huang, is a gender-flipped version of the story in which many of the outlaws are queer women.[150][151][152]

In addition to its colossal popularity in China, Water Margin has been identified as one of the most influential works in the development of early modern Japanese literature.[3][153][4]

Comics

[edit]

Water Margin is referred to in numerous Japanese manga, such as Tetsuo Hara and Buronson's Fist of the North Star, and Masami Kurumada's Fūma no Kojirō, Otokozaka and Saint Seiya. In both works of fiction, characters bearing the same stars of the Water Margin characters as personal emblems of destiny are featured prominently. A Japanese manga called Akaboshi: Ibun Suikoden, based on the story of Water Margin, was serialised in Weekly Shonen Jump.

A Hong Kong manhua series based on Water Margin was also created by the artist Lee Chi Ching. A reimagined series based on Water Margin, 108 Fighters, was created by Andy Seto.

Between 1978 and 1988, the Italian artist Magnus published four acts of his work I Briganti, which places the Water Margin story in a setting that mixes Chinese, Western and science fiction (in Flash Gordon style) elements. Before his death in 1996, the four completed "acts" were published in a volume by Granata Press; two following "acts" were planned but never completed.

In 2007, Asiapac Books published a graphic narrative version of portions of the novel.[154]

Film

[edit]

Most film adaptations of Water Margin were produced by Hong Kong's Shaw Brothers Studio and mostly released in the 1970s and 1980s. They include: The Water Margin (1972),[155][156] directed by Chang Cheh and others; Delightful Forest (1972), directed by Chang Cheh again and starring Ti Lung as Wu Song;[157] Pursuit (1972), directed by Kang Cheng and starring Yueh Hua as Lin Chong; All Men Are Brothers (1975), a sequel to The Water Margin (1972) directed by Chang Cheh and others; and Tiger Killer (1982), directed by Li Han-hsiang and starring Ti Lung as Wu Song again.[158]

Other non-Shaw Brothers production include: All Men Are Brothers: Blood of the Leopard, also known as Water Margin: True Colours of Heroes (1992), which centers on the story of Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Gao Qiu, starring Tony Leung Ka-fai, Elvis Tsui and others;[159] and Troublesome Night 16 (2002), a Hong Kong horror comedy film which spoofs the story of Wu Song avenging his brother.

Television

[edit]

Television series directly based on Water Margin include: Nippon Television's The Water Margin (1973), which was later released in other countries outside Japan;[160][161] Outlaws of the Marsh (1983), which won a Golden Eagle Award; CCTV's The Water Margin (1998), produced by Zhang Jizhong and featuring fight choreography by Yuen Woo-ping; All Men Are Brothers (2011), directed by Kuk Kwok-leung and featuring actors from mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan.

Animations adapted from Water Margin include: Giant Robo: The Animation (1992), an anime series based on Mitsuteru Yokoyama's manga series; Outlaw Star (1998), another cartoon series which makes several references to the novel; Hero: 108 (2010), a flash animated series produced by various companies and shown on Cartoon Network. Galaxy Divine Wind Jinraiger, an anime in the J9 Series planned for a 2016 broadcast, has also cited Water Margin as its inspiration.[162][163]

The 2004 Hong Kong television series Shades of Truth, produced by TVB, features three characters from the novel who are reincarnated into present-day Hong Kong as a triad boss and two police officers respectively.

Video games

[edit]

Video games based on the novel include Konami's console RPG series Suikoden and Koei's strategy game Bandit Kings of Ancient China. Other games with characters based on the novel or were partly inspired by it include: Jade Empire, which features a character "Black Whirlwind" who is based on Li Kui; Data East's Outlaws Of The Lost Dynasty, which was also released under the titles Suiko Enbu and Dark Legend; Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine. There is also a beat em' up game Shuǐhǔ Fēngyún Chuán (Chinese: 水滸風雲傳; lit. 'Water and Wind'), created by Never Ending Soft Team and published by Kin Tec in 1996.[164] It was re-released for the Mega Drive and in arcade version by Wah Lap in 1999.[citation needed] An English version titled "Water Margin: The Tales of Clouds and Winds" by Piko Interactive translated and released in 2015. Some enemy sprites are taken from other beat 'em ups and modified, including Knights of the Round, Golden Axe and Streets of Rage.[citation needed]

In the 8th canto of the 2023 video game Limbus Company, A faction based on the 108 heroes appears as both allies and antagonists.[165]

Music

[edit] Water Margin in Chinese operaWang Ying and Hu Sanniang in Peking operaYan Xijiao and Song Jiang in Yangzhou operaPan Jinlian in Kunqu

Yan Poxi, a Pingju form of the story focused on the concubine Yan Poxi, was performed by Bai Yushuang and her company in Shanghai in the 1930s.

Water Marginised (水滸後傳) (2007) is a folk reggae narrative by Chan Xuan. It tells the story of a present-day jailbird who travels to Liangshan Marsh in hope of joining the outlaw band, only to find that Song Jiang and his men have all taken bureaucratic jobs in the ruling party.

"108 Heroes" is a three-part Peking Rock Opera (first shown in 2007, 2011 and 2014 respectively) formed through a collaborative effort between the Hong Kong Arts Festival, the Shanghai International Arts Festival, Taiwan Contemporary Legend Theater, and the Shanghai Theater Academy. The show combines traditional Peking Opera singing, costumes, martial arts and dance with elements of modern music, costume and dance.[166]

Other

[edit]

The temple fair in Southern Taiwan Song Jiang Battle Array is based on the acrobatic fighting from Water Margin.

Characters from the story often appear on Money-suited playing cards, which are thought to be the ancestor of both modern playing cards and mahjong tiles. These cards are also known as Water Margin cards (水滸牌).

The trading card game Yu-Gi-Oh! has an archetype based on the 108 heroes known as the "Fire Fist" (known as "Flame Star" in the OCG) (炎えん星せい, Ensei) where the monsters aside from Horse Prince, Lion Emperor, and Spirit are based on those heroes.

Appendix

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Other English translated names for the novel include Tale of the Marshes and The Marshes of Mount Liang.

References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e 温庆新 (2014). 关于《水浒传》成书时间研究的方法论思考 [Thoughts on the historiography of the methodology of dating the Water Margin]. 清华大学学报哲学社会科学版. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021.
2. ^ Li (2001), p. 626.
3. ^ a b c Hedberg, W. (2020). Histories of Reading and Nonreading: Shuihu zhuan as Text and Touchstone in Early Modern Japan. In The Japanese Discovery of Chinese Fiction: The Water Margin and the Making of a National Canon (pp. 54-94). New York: Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/hedb19334.7
4. ^ a b Theo D'haen; David Damrosch; Djelal Kadir, eds. (2011). The Routledge Companion to World Literature. Routledge. pp. 464–475. ISBN 9780415570220. OCLC 900201453. During the Edo period (1603-1868), when early modern Japanese fiction was developed, its greatest influence came from Chinese vernacular fiction.
5. ^ Toktoghan et al. History of Song, Volume 22, Annals of Emperor Huizong (Part Four).
6. ^ Toktoghan et al. History of Song, Volume 353, Biography of Zhang Shuye.
7. ^ 戴宏森. 大宋宣和遗事. 中國百科網. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
8. ^ 圖解水滸傳︰看懂中國江湖文化. 博客來書店. Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
9. ^ Zhu, Yixuan (2002). Shuihu Zhuan Ziliao Huibian 水浒传资料汇编 [Compilation of Materials on Water Margin] (in Chinese). Tianjin: Nankai Daxue Chubanshe (南开大学出版社; Nankai University Press). ISBN 978-7-310-01930-4.
10. ^ 呂哲 編著 (2008). Lü Zhe (ed.). 圖解水滸傳 [Illustrated Water Margin]. Haikou: 南海出版公司. p. 260. ISBN 978-7-5442-3972-1.
11. ^ 三朝北盟會編 (in Chinese). Retrieved 21 September 2025.
12. ^ Ning Jiayu (2009). 水浒闲谭 [Tales from the Water Margin]. 北京 [Beijing]: 中国文史出版社. pp. 11–12. ISBN 9787503422751.
13. ^ a b 水浒里此人充满争议, 水浒外引发一场论战, 至今仍是个. 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2025. citing 王, 珏; 李, 殿元 (1994). 《水浒传》中的悬案 [The Unsolved Cases in Water Margin] (in Chinese). 四川人民出版社. ISBN 978-7-220-03715-3. OCLC 34603091. Retrieved 22 September 2025.
14. ^ 三朝北盟會編 (in Chinese). Retrieved 21 September 2025.
15. ^ Wang Liqi (2009). 水滸全傳校注 (in Chinese). Vol. 4. 河北教育出版社. ISBN 978-7543468979.
16. ^ Roberts, J.A.G (1996). A History of China: Prehistory to c. 1800. Vol. 1. Alan Sutton. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-86299-846-2. Retrieved 22 September 2025.
17. ^ Samuel N.C. Lieu (1986). Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China A Historical Survey. Manchester University Press. pp. 230–232, 236, 242. ISBN 9780719010880. Retrieved 22 September 2025.
18. ^ ter Haar, B.J. (1992). The White Lotus Teachings in Chinese Religious History (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Hawaii Press. pp. 49–52. ISBN 0824822188.
19. ^ ter Haar, B.J. (1992). The White Lotus Teachings in Chinese Religious History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 120, 324, 337. ISBN 978-0-8248-2218-7. Retrieved 22 September 2025.
20. ^ Wu, Junqing (2017). "The Fang La Rebellion and the Song Anti-Heresy Discourse". Journal of Chinese Religions. 45 (1): 19–37. doi:10.1080/0737769X.2017.1299399. Retrieved 22 September 2025.
21. ^ a b Miyamoto, Yoko. "Water Margin: Chinese Robin Hood and His Bandits". Demystifying Confucianism. Retrieved 4 July 2018.
22. ^ Lu Xun (1997, p. 384)
23. ^ Wang, Jing (1992), The story of stone: intertextuality, ancient Chinese stone lore, and the stone symbolism in Dream of the red chamber, Water margin, and The journey to the west, Duke University Press, pp. 252–254, ISBN 0-8223-1195-X, which includes the English translation of the relevant excerpt from the novel. The original text of the chapter can be seen e.g. at 水滸傳/第001回, starting from "只中央一個石碑，約高五六尺，下面石龜趺坐 ..."
24. ^ 水滸傳 (120回本) (in Chinese).
25. ^ a b c Bill Findlay, ed. (2004). Frae Ither Tongues: Essays on Modern Translations into Scots. Clevedon [England]: Multilingual Matters Ltd. p. 21. ISBN 1-85359-701-5. OCLC 55630249.
26. ^ Chinese literature. Foreign Languages Press, original from University of Michigan. 1998. p. 138.
27. ^ "The Goriest, Raunchiest Chinese Classic of All Time". Archived from the original on 16 September 2015.
28. ^ 颜建国：小说《水浒传》人物原型再探源. Sohu (in Chinese). Retrieved 22 September 2025.
29. ^ Zhong, Xinan (2004). Jin Shengtan Wenxue Piping Lilun Yanjiu 金圣叹文学批评理论研究 [Study on Jin Shengtan's Literary Criticism Theory] (Thesis) (in Chinese). Shanghai: Shanghai Shifan Daxue (上海师范大学; Shanghai Normal University).
30. ^ Lois Fusek, ed. (4 August 2010). The Three Sui Quash the Demons Revolt; A Comic Novel Attributed to Luo Guanzhong. Translated by Lois Fusek. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 188, 223. ISBN 9780824860707.
31. ^ Mark Edward Lewis (2008). The Lady of Linshui Pacifies Demons A Seventeenth Century Novel. Translated by Brigitte Baptandier. Stanford University Press. pp. 110, 132. ISBN 9780804746663.
32. ^ Klaas Ruitenbeek (1998). Carpentry and Building in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Fifteenth-century Carpenter's Manual, Lu Ban Jing. Brill. p. 106. ISBN 9789004105294.
33. ^ Liu Ts'un-yan (Liu Cunren) (1962). Buddhist and Taoist Influences on Chinese Novels: The authorship of the Feng shen yen i, being a thesis approved for the degree of doctor of philosophy in the University of London, 1957. Translated by Brigitte Baptandier. Kommissionsverlag, O. Harrassowitz. pp. 110, 132.
34. ^ a b Qi, Yukun (2009). "Zhengque Kexue di Pingjia Li Kui" 正确科学地评价李逵 [A Correct and Scientific Evaluation of Li Kui]. Fujian Guangbo Dianshi Daxue Xuebao 福建广播电视大学学报 [Journal of Fujian Radio and Television University] (in Chinese). Fuzhou: Fujian Guangbo Dianshi Daxue (福建广播电视大学; Fujian Radio and Television University).
35. ^ a b Zheng, Zhenduo (1988). Zheng Zhenduo Wenji Disi Juan 郑振铎文集第四卷 [Collected Works of Zheng Zhenduo] (in Chinese). Vol. 4. Beijing: Renmin Wenxue Chubanshe (人民文学出版社; People's Literature Publishing House). p. 125.
36. ^ a b Victor Purcell (3 June 2010). The Boxer Uprising; A Background Study. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166, 223, 228–229, 231–232, 266. ISBN 9780521148122.
37. ^ Joseph W. Esherick (2004). The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 13, 39, 45, 65, 294, 329. ISBN 9780824825386.
38. ^ Meir Shahar; Robert P. Weller, eds. (1996). Unruly Gods Divinity and Society in China. University of Hawaii Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780824817244.
39. ^ 淡江評論 [Tamkang Review] (in Chinese). Vol. 27. Graduate Institute of Western Languages and Literature Research, Tamkang College of Arts and Sciences. 1997. pp. 492–494, 505. OCLC 1642234. Retrieved 1 November 2025.
40. ^ Liu (2016), 52–58.
41. ^ Shi, Nai'an (September 2019). 容与堂刊忠义水浒传 [Rong Yu Tang Edition of the Loyal and Righteous Water Margin] (in Chinese) (全六册 ed.). Beijing: 国家图书馆出版社. ISBN 978-7501365623.
42. ^ Chün-fang Yü (22 March 2001). Kuan-yin; The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. Columbia University Press. p. 481. ISBN 9780231502757.
43. ^ Wang, David Der-wei; Wei, Shang, eds. (2020) [2005]. Dynastic Crisis and Cultural Innovation: From the Late Ming to the Late Qing and Beyond. Brill. pp. 14, 63, 408. ISBN 9781684174140. Retrieved 7 November 2025.
44. ^ Alexander Wylie: Secret Societies in China, in China Researches, p131, 1897 Shanghai, reprinted in USA by Nabu Public Domain Reprints
45. ^ Paul Jakov Smith (2006). ""Shuihu zhuan" and the Military Subculture of the Northern Song, 960-1127". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 66 (2). Harvard-Yenching Institute: 363–422. JSTOR 25066819.
46. ^ a b Mark R. E. Meulenbeld (31 January 2015). Demonic Warfare; Daoism, Territorial Networks, and the History of a Ming Novel. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 191–192. ISBN 9780824838454.
47. ^ a b c d e f Liu Kwang-ching; Richard Hon-Chun Shek, eds. (2004). Heterodoxy in Late Imperial China. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 14, 16, 18, 326, 342, 451, 452. ISBN 9780824825386.
48. ^ a b c d John Christopher Hamm (2005). Paper Swordsmen Jin Yong and the Modern Chinese Martial Arts Novel. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780824827632. Retrieved 24 September 2025.
49. ^ (in Chinese) 明代文学教案：第二章《水浒传》（之一）
50. ^ Li, Jianhua; Zhao, Yanqiang (2011). "《水浒传》招安帷幕下的造反思想探析" [Analysis of Rebellion Thoughts under the Curtain of Offering Amnesty in "Water Margin"]. Journal of Heze University (in Chinese). 33 (3): 55–59. doi:10.16393/j.cnki.37-1436/z.2011.03.010. Retrieved 4 November 2025.
51. ^ Yang Shaopu (1979). "6". 与明代农民起义 [On the Peasant Uprisings in the Ming Dynasty] (in Chinese). pp. 47–57.
52. ^ a b Frederic E. Wakeman jr. (February 1977). "Rebellion and Revolution: The Study of Popular Movements in Chinese History". The Journal of Asian Studies. 36 (2): 201–237. doi:10.2307/2053720. JSTOR 2053720. Retrieved 31 October 2025.
53. ^ Chen Weixing (26 September 2013). "明清时期《水浒传》禁毁情况考论" [A Study on the Banning and Destruction of Water Margin in the Ming and Qing Dynasties]. Guoxue.com (in Chinese). Sichuan: Literature faculty, Chongqing Three Gorges University; School of History, Sichuan University. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2025.
54. ^ Swope, Kenneth M. (2014). The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618-44 (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1134462094.
55. ^ Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013). Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization (illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500771471.
56. ^ Yang, Chunshi (2025). Introduction to Chinese Aesthetics. Translated by Chen, Haiming; Zhong, Xia. World Scientific. p. 51. ISBN 9789819815296. Retrieved 24 September 2025.
57. ^ Scott W. Gregory (2023). Bandits in Print "The Water Margin" and the Transformations of the Chinese Novel. Cornell University Press. p. 127. ISBN 9781501769214. Retrieved 24 September 2025.
58. ^ Ocko, Jonathan K. (2020). Bureaucratic Reform in Provincial China: Ting Jih-ch'ang in Restoration Kiangsu, 1867–1870. Leiden: Brill. pp. 49–51. ISBN 9781684172375. Retrieved 31 October 2025.
59. ^ Frederic Wakeman (1977). Fall of Imperial China. Free Press. p. 149. ISBN 9780029336809.
60. ^ Graciela de la Lama (1982). China. Vol. 2. El Colegio de México. p. 239. ISBN 978-968-12-0103-6.
61. ^ Elizabeth J. Perry (1981). Chinese Perspectives on the Nien Rebellion. M.E. Sharpe. p. 63. ISBN 9780873321914.
62. ^ Perry, Elizabeth J. (January 1976). "Worshipers and Warriors: White Lotus Influence on the Nian Rebellion". Modern China. 2 (1): 16–17. doi:10.1177/009770047600200102. JSTOR 188811. Retrieved 31 October 2025.
63. ^ Perkins, Dorothy (2013). Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Routledge. p. 141. ISBN 978-1135935627.
64. ^ Thomas Michael McClellan (15 May 2008). 恨水之夢 : 改良舊體小說. E. Mellen Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780773460874. Retrieved 24 September 2025.
65. ^ Ming Xia (2008). "Organizational Formations of Organized Crime in China: perspectives from the state, markets, and networks". Journal of Contemporary China. 17 (54). Taylor & Francis: 1–23. doi:10.1080/10670560701693039.
66. ^ Jerome Ch'en (1966). "Secret Societies". Ch'ing-shih Wen / Late Imperial China. 1 (3). Johns Hopkins University Press.
67. ^ Philip Ball (2017). The Water Kingdom; A Secret History of China. University of Chicago Press. p. 129. ISBN 9780226369204.
68. ^ Frederic Wakeman Jr. (25 March 2004). "Chiang's Monster; Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service". ChinaFile. University of California Press; The New York Review of Books. p. 650.
69. ^ a b C.J. Lim; Steve McCloy (15 April 2021). "The Margin of Water". Once Upon a China. Taylor & Francis. pp. 222–226. ISBN 9781315402529.
70. ^ Roderick MacFarquhar; Michael Schoenhals (18 August 2006). Mao's Last Revolution. Harvard University Press. pp. 401–407. ISBN 9780674023321.
71. ^ "Criticize Shuihu zhuan Campaign (1975)". Chineseposters.net.
    • Guo Jian, Yongyi Song & Yuan Zhou, Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Cultural Revolution (Lanham, etc.: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2006)
    • Kwok-sing Li (editor) & Mary Lok (translator), A Glossary of Political Terms of the People’s Republic of China (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press 1995)
    • Helmut Martin, Cult & Canon - The Origins and Development of State Maoism (Armonk, NY, etc.: M.E. Sharpe Inc., 1982)
72. ^ Li Gucheng (1995). A glossary of political terms of the People's Republic of China. Chinese University Press. pp. 417–418. ISBN 9780520064591.
73. ^ Hongchu Fu (27 February 2023). Three Yuan Plays by Yang Zi; In English Translation with Full Annotations. Lexington Books. p. 79. ISBN 9781793653420.
74. ^ Catherine Vance Yeh (11 May 2020). The Chinese Political Novel; Migration of a World Genre. Brill. pp. 123, 133, 139–140, 197, 241–242, 244–245. ISBN 9781684175550.
75. ^ a b c Altenburger, Roland (2009). The Sword Or the Needle: The Female Knight-errant (xia) in Traditional Chinese Narrative. Peter Lang Publishing. pp. 36, 273. ISBN 9783034300360. Retrieved 2 November 2025. google.co.Idi
76. ^ Ge 2001, p. 160.
77. ^ Anthony Reid; David Kelly, eds. (13 June 1998). Asian Freedoms; The Idea of Freedom in East and Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780521637572.
78. ^ Liu, James T. C. (July 2020). "Rebels and Traitors: The Social History of Rebellion in the Water Margin". Modern China. 46 (3): 673–674, 681. doi:10.1177/0097700420913523. Retrieved 31 October 2025.
79. ^ Mann (2000), p. 1610.
80. ^ 章培恒 (2014). 中国文学史新著. 《水浒传》歌颂了男性英雄，却贬低了女性。在《水浒传》中没有真正意义上的对女性的描写，其中所写的女性大致可分两类，一类是孙二娘、扈三娘、顾大嫂这样的男性化了的女性，另一类是潘金莲、潘巧云、阎婆惜等"淫妇"。作者把潘金莲等女性写成天生的淫贱，既不顾及社会对妇女（例如潘金莲）的迫害以及由此引起的她们心理上的扭曲，又将对她们的迫害（例如石秀、杨雄的杀潘巧云）视作英雄的行为，这是其主要的历史局限。至其成因，则是我国封建社会长期流行着的对性爱的压抑和对女性的歧视。
81. ^ 周作人 (1964). 知堂回想录. 在这上面作者似乎无意中露出了一点马脚，即是他对女人憎恶的程度。
82. ^ "Renditions No.1" (PDF). 1973. To be accurate, the world of The Water Margin does not hate the female sex as a whole. There are individual good women commended in the book; on the other hand, traits commonly held to be feminine shortcomings, such as pusillanimity, narrow-mindedness and naivete, have not been singled out for stricture. What is detested here is lascivious thought and behaviour. Women slain in the book have either committed adultery, or aided and abetted it. Slain too are the male offenders, e.g., Hsi-men Ch'ing and P'ei Ju-hai; when heroes like Li K'uei meet a pair of adulterous "dog and bitch", they put both to the sword without discrimination. This is actually fairer, and more respectful, to the fair sex than what often happens in the tales of Chaucer or Boccaccio and other medieval fabliaux, where the adulteress customarily gets away unscathed. However, owing to the distaste for carnality, women in the novel seldom combine beauty and virtue in their persons.
83. ^ 《水滸全傳·第三十二回　武行者醉打孔亮　錦毛虎義釋宋江》：宋江道：「但凡好漢犯了『溜骨髓』三個字的，好生惹人恥笑。......」
84. ^ 解舒淇 (2007). 另一种丑化——以扈三娘、孙二娘、顾大嫂为考察对象. 长江工程职业技术学院学报 (3): 67–70.
85. ^ 潘星晔 (2013). 《水浒传》女性观探究 (Thesis). 曲阜师范大学. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
86. ^ 孙述宇 (2011). 水滸傳: 怎样的强盗书 (in Chinese). 上海: 上海古籍出版社. OCLC 876870757.
87. ^ Sin 2017, p. 106.
88. ^ Sin 2017, p. 105.
89. ^ Sin 2017, pp. 97, 107.
90. ^ Sin, William (March 2017). "The Water Margin, Moral Criticism, and Cultural Confrontation". Dao. 16 (1): 95–111. doi:10.1007/s11712-016-9536-4.
91. ^ Leo Ou-fan Lee, "Literary Trends I: The Quest for Modernity, 1895–1927," in John K. Fairbank, ed., Cambridge History of China Vol. 12 Republican China 1912–1949 Pt I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983): 455.
92. ^ Ge 2001, p. 55.
93. ^ 呂哲 編著 (2008). 圖解水滸傳. 海口: 南海出版公司. p. 271. ISBN 978-7-5442-3972-1.
94. ^ 【党史】毛泽东点评梁山好汉 "不当李逵式官长". 新华网（共产党员网）. 30 August 2016. Archived from the original on 21 December 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2018.
95. ^ a b Idema, W. L. (1997). A guide to Chinese literature. Lloyd Haft. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-89264-123-9. OCLC 39106374.
96. ^ Hu Shih. Research on Water Margin (水滸傳考證).
97. ^ Ge (2001), p. 104-106.
98. ^ Deng Lei (2017). Inventory of Known Editions of Water 水浒传版本知见录 (in Chinese). Nanjing: 凤凰出版社. ISBN 978-7-5506-2662-1.
99. ^ Gregory (2023), p. Introduction.
100. ^ a b Li (2001), p. 626-627.
101. ^ 李永祜;《京本忠義傳》的斷代斷性與版本研究; 水滸爭鳴(第十一輯); 2009年.
102. ^ 容与堂刊忠义水浒传(全六册). nlcpress.com. (一)藏于上海图书馆，乃明正德、嘉靖年间所刻 ...
103. ^ Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2013). Chinese history : a new manual. Harvard University. Asia Center (2nd rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center. p. 413. ISBN 978-0-674-06715-8. OCLC 792887523.
104. ^ Plaks (1987), p. 242.
105. ^ a b Li (2001), p. 627.
106. ^ Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Rawski, Evelyn S. (June 1993). "A Profile of The Manchu Language in Ch'ing History". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 53 (1): 63. doi:10.2307/2719468. JSTOR 2719468.
107. ^ Haruo Shirane, ed. (2002). Early modern Japanese literature : an anthology, 1600-1900. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 564. ISBN 0-231-50743-7. OCLC 213305152.
108. ^ Haruo Shirane, ed. (2002). Early modern Japanese literature : an anthology, 1600-1900. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 555–886. ISBN 0-231-50743-7. OCLC 213305152.
109. ^ Haruo Shirane, ed. (2002). Early modern Japanese literature : an anthology, 1600-1900. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-231-50743-7. OCLC 213305152.
110. ^ Haruo Shirane, ed. (2002). Early modern Japanese literature : an anthology, 1600-1900. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 656–886. ISBN 0-231-50743-7. OCLC 213305152.
111. ^ Guth, Christine (2004). Longfellow's tattoos : tourism, collecting, and Japan. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 147. ISBN 0-295-98402-3. OCLC 53477203.
112. ^ Klompmakers, Inge (1998). Of brigands and bravery : Kuniyoshi's heroes of the Suikoden. 国芳(1797-1861) 歌川. Leiden: Hotei Pub. ISBN 90-74822-08-8. OCLC 39162440.
113. ^ Au Bord De L'eau: Shui-Hu-Zhuan. (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliotheque De La Pleiade, 1983). 2 vols. ISBN 2-07-010910-0 (v. 1) ISBN 2-07-010911-9 (v. 2).
114. ^ All Men Are Brothers (New York: The John Day Co., 2 vols. 1933); reprinted: New York: Moyer Bell, 2010 ISBN 978-1-55921-303-5). The 71-chapter version, excluding the foreword by Shi Nai'an.
115. ^ Shi Nai'an (2010). The water margin : outlaws of the marsh. Translated by J. H. Jackson. Introduction by Edwin Lowe (1st ed.). North Clarendon, Vt: Tuttle Pub. ISBN 978-0-8048-4095-8. OCLC 436027537. The 70-chapter Jackson translation, which includes Shi Nai'an's foreword (1.5 pages) and prologue (nine pages), is estimated at about 365,000 words.
116. ^ Chin (1935).
117. ^ Shi Nai'an; Luo Guanzhong (1981). Outlaws of the marsh. Translated by Sidney Shapiro. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. ISBN 0-253-12574-X. OCLC 6863157.
118. ^ Nai'an Shi, Guanzhong Luo, John Dent-Young and Alex Dent-Young. The Marshes of Mount Liang: A New Translation of the Shuihu Zhuan or Water Margin of Shi Naian and Luo Guanzhong. (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 5 Vols,1994–2002). Vol 1: ISBN 978-962-201-602-6, vol 2: ISBN 978-962-201-751-1, vol 3: ISBN 978-962-201-847-1, vol 4: ISBN 978-962-201-989-8, vol 5: ISBN 978-962-201-990-4.
119. ^ 简述《水浒传》的成书过程与作者. Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
120. ^ 《水滸》縱橫談 (in Chinese).
121. ^ Paul S. Ropp, "The Distinctive Art of Chinese Fiction," in Ropp, ed., The Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization. (Berkeley; Oxford: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 324–325.
122. ^ Hinsch, Bret (1992). Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China. University of California Press. p. 135. ISBN 9780520078697.
123. ^ Yeh, Wen-Hsin (2000). Becoming Chinese: Passages to Modernity and Beyond. University of California Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-520-22218-2.
124. ^ Lu Xun. A Brief History of Chinese Fiction (1923; Foreign Languages Press, 1959). Translated by G. Yang and Yang Xianyi. p. 232, 235.
125. ^ Thủy Hử truyện và nỗi hàm oan của Phan Kim Liên – Võ Đại Lang An Ninh Thế Giới, 21 August 2016
126. ^ Con cháu Thi Nại Am "trả nợ" Người Lao Động, 30 November 2015
127. ^ a b c d e f g Thomas Zimmer (2012). 中國皇朝末期的長篇小說 [The Long Novel of Late Imperial China. Translated by Ge Fang et al.] (in Chinese). 上海: 華東師範大學出版社. ISBN 978-7561766262.
128. ^ Lu Xun (1998). 中國小說史略 [A Brief History of Chinese Fiction] (in Simplified Chinese). 上海: 上海古籍出版社. ISBN 9787532589029. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
129. ^ a b c 水滸後傳 (in Japanese).
130. ^ a b Kang-i Sun Chang; Stephen Owen, eds. (2013). The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature (in Chinese). Vol. 2. 三聯書店. ISBN 978-7108044679.
131. ^ a b Hu Shih (2003). "〈《水滸續集》兩種序〉". 胡適文存二集 [ "Two Prefaces to the Sequel to Water Margin."] (in Simplified Chinese). Hefei: 安徽教育出版社. pp. 750–767. ISBN 7533622170.
132. ^ a b Zhao Hong Jan (2016). 〈小說．性别．歷史文化——美國漢學家魏愛蓮教授訪談錄〉 [Novel. Gender. History and Culture: An Interview with American Sinologist Professor Wei Ailian]. 《浙江大學學報（人文社會科學版）》 (in Simplified Chinese). 48 (2): 194–201. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
133. ^ a b 结水浒全传：前言 ["The Complete Water Margin" Preface]. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
134. ^ a b Takashi Matsumura; Ken Komatsu (2005). 図解雑学 水滸伝 (in Japanese). ナツメ社. p. 205, 208. ISBN 9784816338090.
135. ^ a b c Roland Altenburger (2009). The Sword Or the Needle The Female Knight-errant (xia) in Traditional Chinese Narrative. Peter Lang. pp. 274–275. ISBN 9783034300360.
136. ^ a b Martin Huang (2004). Snakes' Legs; Sequels, Continuations, Rewritings, and Chinese Fiction. Unibetsity of Hawaii Press. pp. 9, 148–153, 157–158. ISBN 9780824828127.
137. ^ Yuming Luo (2011). A Concise History of Chinese Literature. Vol. 1. Translated by Yang Ye. Brill. pp. 884–885. ISBN 9789004203662.
138. ^ Chuang, Renjie (2010). 晚清文人的風月陷溺與自覺 [The Indulgence and Awareness of Late Qing Literati in Romantic Affairs] (ebook) (in Chinese). Showwe Information Co., Ltd. p. 61. ISBN 9789862214312.
139. ^ 後水滸傳 [Water Margin Transmission]. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
140. ^ Qian, Cai; 錢彩 (1995). General Yue Fei : a novel. Hong Kong: Joint Pub. (H.K.) Co. p. 39. ISBN 962-04-1279-6. OCLC 34896897.
141. ^ Hsia, Chih-tsing (2004). C.T. Hsia on Chinese literature. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-231-50347-4. OCLC 213305050.
142. ^ Sir T.L. Yang (1995). General Yue Fei. Joint Publishing (H.K.) Co. Ltd. p. 422, 658. ISBN 9789620412790.
143. ^ Børdahl, Vibeke. Four Masters Of Chinese Storytelling: Full-length Repertoires Of Yangzhou Storytelling On Video. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies; Bilingual edition, 2004 (ISBN 87-91114-64-0), pg. 166
144. ^ Hsia: pp. 448–449, footnote #31
145. ^ Xiong, Ti (1987). The Legend of Zhou Tong 周侗传奇 (in Chinese). Vol. 1–10. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Fine Arts Publishing House.
146. ^ a b 殘水滸. Wikisource. 1933.
147. ^ a b Ma Tiji. 水浒书录 (in Chinese). 上海古籍出版社. pp. 146, 319, 325, 363.
148. ^ Hedberg, W. (2020). Sinophilia, Sinophobia, and Vernacular Philology in Early Modern Japan. In The Japanese Discovery of Chinese Fiction: The Water Margin and the Making of a National Canon (pp. 25-53). New York: Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/hedb19334.6
149. ^ "Rise of the Water Margin: A Novel of the Near Future". Amazon.
150. ^ Tor.com (15 October 2020). "S. L. Huang's New Take on the Most Famous Chinese Novel You've Never Read in English: Announcing The Water Outlaws". Tor.com. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
151. ^ "The Water Outlaws by S L Huang". www.publishersweekly.com. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
152. ^ "Sapphic Book Club: The Water Outlaws". Solid State Books. 24 September 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
153. ^ "'The Japanese Discovery of Chinese Fiction': A literary classic's outsize impact on Japan". The Japan Times. 22 February 2020. Remarkably, it [Water Margin] also remained for a long time largely incomprehensible to its readers. For centuries, classical Chinese united the intellectual elites of East Asia, much as Latin did in Europe. But the kind of popular fiction that entered Japan from the 17th century was written in the vernacular [Chinese], a tongue that only a tiny minority of Japanese interpreters in the port city of Nagasaki understood. For most others, it might as well have been Greek. Understanding this type of fiction required a serious commitment, and a variety of reference guides and dictionaries were published in Japan to facilitate its reading.
154. ^ Shi, Nai'an (2007). Ng, Keng Yeow (ed.). Water Margin Compact Classic (reprint ed.). Asiapac Books. ISBN 978-9812294586. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
155. ^ "All about movies, games, gambling and martial arts". Archived from the original on 14 April 2005. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
156. ^ Dragon's Den UK
157. ^ The Delightful Forest at IMDb
158. ^ Tiger Killer at IMDb
159. ^ All Men Are Brothers: Blood of the Leopard at IMDb
160. ^ BFI Entry
161. ^ "Originally screened on British TV in 1976"
162. ^ =銀河神風ジンライガー » Story. Jinraiger.com. 9 April 2014. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
163. ^ 新J9始動！アニメ『銀河神風ジンライガー』制作決定、モチーフは水滸伝 | おたくま経済新聞. Otakei.otakuma.net. 8 April 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
164. ^ 【MD/東亜】 アジア版 Mega Drive 用 ROMカートリッジ Vol. 2 (1989 年頃～) ≪非ライセンス≫. ぴこぴこ I Feel Alright!.
165. ^ "The Pinky". Limbus Company Wiki. Retrieved 2 June 2025.
166. ^ "Brave new sequel". Taipei Times. 10 June 2011.

Bibliography

[edit]

• Chin, Shen T'an (Jin Shengtan) (7 March 1935), "Preface to 'Sui Hu'" (PDF), The China Critic, translated by T.K.C.: 234–235 reprinted at China Heritage Quarterly. Written by Jin, but attributed to Shi Nai'an.
• Dent-Young, John. "Translating Chinese Fiction: The Shui Hu Zhuan," in Sin-Wai Chan and David Pollard, An Encyclopedia of Translation: Chinese-English, English-Chinese (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1995), 249–261 [1].
• Ge, Liangyan (2001). Out of the Margins: The Rise of Chinese Vernacular Fiction. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 9780824823702.
• Gregory, Scott W. (2023). Bandits in Print: "The Water Margin" and the Transformations of the Chinese Novel. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501769191. Available Free Download Open Access.
• Hsia, C.T., "The Water Margin," in C.T. Hsia, The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction (1968; rpr. Cornell University Press, 1996), pp. 75–114.
• Jenner, William (1996). "Tough Guys, Mateship and Honour: Another Chinese Tradition" (PDF). East Asian History. 12. Melbourne: Australian National University: 1–34. ISSN 1036-6008.
• Liu, Peng (2016). ""Conceal my Body so that I can Protect the State": The Making of the Mysterious Woman in Daoism and Water Margin". Ming Studies. 2016 (74): 48–71. doi:10.1080/0147037X.2016.1228876. S2CID 164447144.
• Lu Xun (1997). A Brief History of Chinese Novels 1 (in Japanese). Vol. 4. Translated by Nakajima Chobun. 平凡社. ISBN 978-4582806182.
• Li, Wai-Yee (2001). "Full-Length Vernacular Fiction". In Mair, Victor (ed.). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. NY: Columbia University Press., esp. pp. 626–332.
• Knight, Sabina (2012). Chinese Literature: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195392067.
• Mann, Susan (2000). "The Male Bond in Chinese History and Culture". American Historical Review. 105 (5): 1600–1614. doi:10.2307/2652032. JSTOR 2652032.
• Plaks, Andrew H. (1987). "Shui-hu-chuan: Deflation of Heroism". The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel: Ssu ta ch'i-shu. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 279–360.
• Porter, Deborah (1993). "Toward an Aesthetic of Chinese Vernacular Fiction: Style and the Colloquial Medium of Shui-Hu Chuan". T'oung Pao. 79 (1/3): 113–153. doi:10.1163/156853293X00044. JSTOR 4528584.
• Wu, Yenna (2013), Ming-Qing Fiction, Oxford Online Bibliographies (Chinese Studies), Oxford University Press

External links

[edit] Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article: 水滸傳 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water Margin.

• Outlaws of the Marsh: Chinese text with embedded Chinese-English dictionary
• Steve Donoghue. "Book Review: The Water Margin". Open Letters Monthly. Archived from the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2011.

v t e Shi Nai'an's Water Margin
Literature	Jin Ping Mei General Yue Fei
Chinese opera	Peach Flower Village The Qing Ding Pearl
Films	The Water Margin (1972) All Men Are Brothers: Blood of the Leopard (1993)
Sequels	All Men Are Brothers (1975)
Parodies	All's Well, Ends Well Too (1993) Laughter of the Water Margins (1993) Troublesome Night 16 (2002) Shades of Truth (2004)
TV	The Water Margin (1973) Outlaws of the Marsh (1983) The Water Margin (1998) Hero: 108 (2010) All Men Are Brothers (2011)
Games	Bandit Kings of Ancient China (1989) Outlaws of the Lost Dynasty (1995)
Related	Classic Chinese Novels

v t e Classic Chinese Novels
Four Classic Novels	Water Margin (mid-14th century) Romance of the Three Kingdoms (late 14th century) Journey to the West (c. 1592) Dream of the Red Chamber (mid-18th century)
Additional classics	The Plum in the Golden Vase (c. 1610) The Scholars (1750)

v t e Suikoden
Main series	Suikoden Suikoden II Suikoden III Suikoden IV Suikoden V
Spin-offs	Suikogaiden Card Stories Tactics Tierkreis Tsumugareshi Hyakunen no Toki
Compilations	Suikoden I & II
Related	Konami Wai Wai Sokoban Super Bomberman R 2 Eiyuden Chronicle Rising Hundred Heroes Water Margin

Portals:

• China
• Novels

Authority control databases
International	VIAF GND
National	United States France BnF data Japan Spain Norway Israel
Other	IdRef Open Library