Syrian Civil War | Facts & Timeline - Encyclopedia Britannica

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• Introduction & Top Questions
• Uprising
• Civil war
  • Use of chemical weapons
  • The rise of the Nusrah Front and ISIS
  • International intervention and the entrance of Russian forces
  • Assad government restores control over most of Syria
  • Assad overthrown and the creation of a new government
• Timelines of events
  • Key events in Syria 1946–2010
  • Uprising in Syria, 2011–

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• What is the Syrian Civil War?
• How did the Syrian Civil War begin?
• Who are the major combatants in the Syrian Civil War?
• Have chemical weapons been used in the Syrian Civil War?
• What has been the humanitarian impact of the Syrian Civil War?

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External Websites

• BBC - The Explanation - How Syria's peaceful uprising became a civil war
• Al Jazeera - SyriaÂ’s war explained from the beginning
• Council on Foreign Relations - Syria�s Civil War: The Descent Into Horror
• NPR - Syria's Civil War Started A Decade Ago. Here's Where It Stands

Quick Summary Ask the Chatbot a Question Written and fact-checked by Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Britannica Editors Last updated Nov. 13, 2025 •History Table of Contents Table of Contents Quick Summary Ask the Chatbot a Question Top Questions

What is the Syrian Civil War?

The Syrian Civil War began in 2011 after pro-democracy protests swept through Syria during the Arab Spring, threatening the rule of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. His violent suppression of protesters escalated into war between Assad’s forces and opposition militias. An offensive led by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham resulted in Assad being removed from power in December 2024. The Syrian Civil War has been a source of significant instability in the Middle East since 2011, and the resultant civilian displacement and refugee exodus constitute one of the worst humanitarian crises in modern history.

How did the Syrian Civil War begin?

From 2006 to 2010 Syria suffered its worst drought in modern history. The combined effects of the drought and preexisting economic disparities under the Assad regime contributed to the first nonviolent pro-reform protests, in 2011, riding the wave of Arab Spring uprisings. Divisions between the country’s Sunni majority and the ruling Alawite elite were also a factor. The Bashar al-Assad regime’s harsh military crackdown escalated tensions, and by September 2011 the peaceful protests had become an armed insurgency.

Who are the major combatants in the Syrian Civil War?

There have been many parties involved in the Syrian Civil War. The Syrian Arab Army (SAA), which has fought alongside Hezbollah and numerous Shiʿi militias, was under the control of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad until his removal from power in December 2024. Assad also received foreign support from Russia and Iran. Opposition forces have included the Southern Front, the Kurdish-dominant Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), and a coalition of SAA defectors. These groups have been supported by Western powers such as the United States and Germany. Regional support comes from Turkey, Jordan, Israel, and Saudi Arabia. Militant Islamist organizations including ISIS and Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) also opposed the Assad regime, with HTS leading an offensive in November–December 2024 that ousted Assad.

Have chemical weapons been used in the Syrian Civil War?

In 2012 Syrian President Bashar al-Assad’s regime confirmed for the first time its possession of a chemical weapons arsenal. Syria threatened to deploy chemical weapons against foreign aggressors but stressed that it would never use them on civilians. Since 2012, however, numerous multinational investigations have uncovered Syrian chemical weapons attacks that number in “the low dozens” and have targeted Syrian civilians. The deadliest occurred in 2013 in the Damascus suburb of Ghouta. The Assad government denied using chemical weapons.

What has been the humanitarian impact of the Syrian Civil War?

Since its start in 2011 and through 2018, the Syrian Civil War created the largest refugee population in the world, constituting over a third of the global refugee population. In 2018 the United Nations recorded 6.7 million Syrian refugees, nearly 40 percent of Syria’s population that year. Most fled to Turkey and other regional allies, but hundreds of thousands have found asylum in Germany, the United States, and Canada. Within Syria itself, an estimated 6.5 million civilians have been displaced. Several human rights organizations have called the Syrian Civil War the worst humanitarian crisis of the 21st century.

In March 2011 Syria’s government, led by Pres. Bashar al-Assad, faced an unprecedented challenge to its authority when pro-democracy protests erupted throughout the country. Protesters demanded an end to the authoritarian practices of the Assad regime, in place since Assad’s father, Hafez al-Assad, became president in 1971. The Syrian government used violence to suppress demonstrations, making extensive use of police, military, and paramilitary forces. Opposition militias began to form in 2011, and by 2012 the conflict had expanded into a full-fledged civil war. In late November 2024, as the government’s support from military allies collapsed, it was unable to stave off a rapid offensive by opposition forces and in early December Assad fled the country. The civil war continued after Assad’s fall as a new government took shape and worked to assert control over all of Syria.

Uprising

In January 2011, Syrian Pres. Bashar al-Assad was asked in an interview with The Wall Street Journal if he expected the wave of popular protest then sweeping through the Arab world—which had already unseated authoritarian rulers in Tunisia and Egypt—to reach Syria. Assad acknowledged that there had been economic hardships for many Syrians and that progress toward political reform had been slow and halting, but he was confident that Syria would be spared because his administration’s stance of resistance to the United States and Israel aligned with the beliefs of the Syrian people, whereas the leaders who had already fallen had carried out pro-Western foreign policy in defiance of their people’s feelings.

The onset of antiregime protests, coming just a few weeks after the interview, made it clear that Assad’s situation had been much more precarious than he was willing to admit. In reality, a variety of long-standing political and economic problems were pushing the country toward instability. When Assad succeeded his father in 2000, he came to the presidency with a reputation as a modernizer and a reformer. The hopes that were raised by Assad’s presidency went largely unfulfilled, though. In politics, a brief turn toward greater participation was quickly reversed, and Assad revived the authoritarian tactics of his late father’s administration, including pervasive censorship and surveillance and brutal violence against suspected opponents of the regime. Assad also oversaw significant liberalization of Syria’s state-dominated economy, but those changes mostly served to enrich a network of crony capitalists with ties to the regime. On the eve of the uprising, then, Syrian society remained highly repressive, with increasingly conspicuous inequalities in wealth and privilege.

Environmental crisis also played a role in Syria’s uprising. Between 2006 and 2010, Syria experienced the worst drought in the country’s modern history. Hundreds of thousands of farming families were reduced to poverty, causing a mass migration of rural people to urban shantytowns.

It was in the impoverished drought-stricken rural province of Daraa, in southern Syria, that the first major protests occurred in March 2011. A group of children had been arrested and tortured by the authorities for writing antiregime graffiti; incensed local people took to the street to demonstrate for political and economic reforms. Security forces responded harshly, conducting mass arrests and sometimes firing on demonstrators. The violence of the regime’s response added visibility and momentum to the protesters’ cause, and within weeks similar nonviolent protests had begun to appear in cities around the country. Videos of security forces beating and firing at protesters—captured by witnesses on mobile phones—were circulated around the country and smuggled out to foreign media outlets.

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From early on, the uprising and the regime’s response had a sectarian dimension. Many of the protesters belonged to the country’s Sunni majority, while the ruling Assad family were members of the country’s Alawite minority. Alawites also dominated the security forces and the irregular militias that carried out some of the worst violence against protesters and suspected opponents of the regime. Sectarian divisions were initially not as rigid as is sometimes supposed, though; the political and economic elite with ties to the regime included members of all of Syria’s confessional groups—not just Alawites—while many middle- and working-class Alawites did not particularly benefit from belonging to the same community as the Assad family and may have shared some of the protesters’ socioeconomic grievances.

As the conflict progressed, however, sectarian divisions hardened. In his public statements, Assad sought to portray the opposition as Sunni Islamic extremists in the mold of al-Qaeda and as participants in foreign conspiracies against Syria. The regime also produced propaganda stoking minorities’ fears that the predominately Sunni opposition would carry out violent reprisals against non-Sunni communities.

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As the protests increased in strength and size, the regime responded with heavier force. In some cases this meant encircling cities or neighborhoods that had become hubs of protest, such as Bāniyās or Homs, with tanks, artillery, and attack helicopters and cutting off utilities and communications. In response, some groups of protesters began to take up arms against the security forces. In June, Syrian troops and tanks moved into the northern town of Jisr al-Shugūr, sending a stream of thousands of refugees fleeing into Turkey.

By the summer of 2011 Syria’s regional neighbors and the global powers had both begun to split into pro- and anti-Assad camps. The United States and the European Union were increasingly critical of Assad as his crackdown continued, and U.S. Pres. Barack Obama and several European heads of state called for him to step down in August 2011. An anti-Assad bloc consisting of Qatar, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia formed in the last half of 2011. The United States, the EU, and the Arab League soon introduced sanctions targeting senior members of the Assad regime.

Quick Facts Date: February 2011 - present (Show more) Location: Syria (Show more) Participants: Free Syrian Army Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (Show more) Context: Arab Spring (Show more) Key People: Vladimir Putin Bashar al-Assad Barack Obama (Show more) See all related content

Meanwhile, Syria’s long-standing allies Iran and Russia continued their support. An early indicator of the international divisions and rivalries that would prolong the conflict came in October 2011 when Russia and China cast the first of several vetoes blocking a UN Security Council Resolution that would have condemned Assad’s crackdown.