Turkey, Syria And Iraq: Conflict Over The Euphrates-Tigris

Both the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers originate in Turkey and flow to the Shatt al-Arab basin in southern Iraq. The Euphrates crosses Syria and Iraq, with Turkey and Syria contributing 90% and 10% to its water flow respectively. On the other hand, the Tigris flows from Turkey to Iraq, with Turkey, Iraq and Iran contributing 40%, 51% and 9% of its flow respectively (Kibaroglu & Scheumann, 2013).

Although Iran contributes to the flow of the Tigris, it is generally not considered a main co-riparian in the Euphrates-Tigris (ET) basin. Hence, this case study will only focus on the three main riparian states, i.e. Iraq, Syria and Turkey (see however a case study on Iraq and Iran over the Shatt al-Arab river).

Between cooperation and conflict

Relations between the three main co-riparian states have been punctuated by both highly cooperative and conflictive events. Until 1960, as the water used by the co-riparians was low, relations between the three countries were considered “harmonious” (Kibaroglu, 2014). However, at the beginning of the 1960s, several factors led to tensions amongst the states and thus inhibited cooperation on water management of the ET basin.

Unilateral water development projects lead to tensions

At that time, the co-riparian states unilaterally initiated large-scale water development projects in an uncoordinated way, thereby affecting river flow. As the region’s population growth led to higher water demands, the initial purpose of these projects was to regulate river flow and prevent floods (Gleick, 1994; Kibaroglu & Scheumann, 2013).

However, it rapidly became a plan for hydropower generation to enable Turkey to limit its dependency on oil for energy. In addition, environmental factors aggravated tensions between the co-riparians. For instance, in 1975 Turkey and Syria simultaneously started to use the Keban (Turkey) and Taqba (Syria) dams during a period of drought. This dispute, solved thanks to the mediation of Saudi Arabia, almost led to an armed conflict (Kibaroglu & Scheumann, 2013). Moreover, variations in precipitation throughout the seasons, coupled with very inefficient irrigation systems and the cultivation of water-intensive crops, intensified water disputes (Lorenz & Erickson, 2013).

External factors intensify the dispute

Besides these environmental aspects, other factors unrelated to water played a major role. First, while the Cold War deepened tensions over water, Turkey joined NATO whilst Syria and Iraq kept close ties with the USSR (Kibaroglu, 2014). Second, the issue with the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) was a major bone of contention between Iraq and Turkey until the 2000s (Lorenz & Erickson, 2013). Lastly, the territorial dispute over the Hatay province was a major source of tension between the countries until 2005 (Kibaroglu et al., 2005; Stern, 2005).

1980s-1990s: Culmination of the conflict

The tensions brought the dispute to another level in the 1980s and 1990s, as Turkey started to use water as an instrument to put pressure on the other co-riparian states and link it to issues not related to water (Gleick, 1994). For instance, in 1987 Turkey and Syria brokered an agreement in which Turkey committed to release 500 cubic metres per second of water to Syria, whilst the latter committed to put an end to its support for the PKK (Kibaroglu, 2014; Lorenz & Erickson, 2013).

Moreover, in 1990, Turkey cut off the Euphrates flow when Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 (Gleick, 1994). In this period, cooperation seemed to be in a deadlock (Vajpeyi, 2012). Turkey's refusal to sign the 1997 UN Water Convention, being one of only three countries to vote against it in the UN General Assembly, added to this deadlock. Turkey, the upstream riparian, thereby indicated that it did not feel bound to comply with the principles that the convention sought to codify, especially the obligations to not cause significant harm to co-riparian states and to share the river equitably (FAO, 2008).

The large number of factors which play a part in the eruption of conflict shows that grievances over water management are not the only sources of conflict in the ET basin. This also shows how Turkey, as an upstream state, could instrumentalise water to pressure states located downstream. After a period of acute tensions between the co-riparians during the 1980s and 1990s, the late 1990s and early 2000s witnessed a significant improvement in relations amongst the co-riparian states, which enabled the reactivation of cooperation over water management (Kibaroglu, 2014).